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3.4 Knowledge-Action-Learning |
Economy does not provide tools to steer development towards other than profit oriented aims. Even in the search for profit the development is based on subjective expectations that might easily backfeed and accumulate to an "epidemy" [Piper p. 190]: "Mitchel retraces the cause of "infection herds" to the extraordinary complexity of the modern monetarised economy. For a lasting prosperity at least a minimum of coordination between the different economic units would be needed but can't be delivered by the normal industrial, financial and commercial relations."
Money, as abstract as it is, as atractive as its limited objectives are, as useless it is as means of steering - if additional aims are not set by politics. Multiplication of money as purpose for itself is a big game - a meaningless game - a destructive game - if other aims are not set by society, by politics. It is gambling, without respect to past (adaptation to cultures) and future (resources, individual life plans, socio-cultural aims).
Economy was intended as knowing and keeping "the law and order of the house" - not as selling the house and emigrate. Even Smith put a clearly "visible hand" besides the invisible one, a state e.g. that has the right and duty to regulate banking, interest rates, taxes to prevent alcoholism and he should encourage art and culture. [
after Piper p. 34] J. St. Mill "warned the workers of England, not to expect too much from governmental action". He did not think about nationalisation, but cooperatives and the taxing of excessive heritages and similar reforms. [after Piper p. 58:].If we can speak about a "duty of money" and of the connected "progress", then a large majority would surly agree, that it is not sufficient if this duty is limited to the growth of existing fortunes, but progress should improve the life of all!
We may summarize the main "political finalities" as follows:
- Control of the (private and states') power of money! Control of power (monopolies), of the economic concentration process that is continuing in accelerated form under the banner of "international competitivity"! There is not much "democracy" left if governmental power is controlled through dividing it in legislative, executive and jurisprudence - while the important decisions have in the meantime been overtaken by the capital in its abstract, impersonal form.
- A just and equal distribution of resources and products. If politics is unwilling or unable to do this - there is a risk that unemployed masses turn to "self-help", as recommended by the "downsizers", but probably with different means.
- Production is not the real aim of economy - but a decent life for all, the zest of life, pleasure.
- A right for employment for all! What demands a special respect for sustainable, subsistence oriented (peripheral, small scale) economies and strata.
- The limits set by nature have to be respected, the limited raw materials, the limited absorption capacity of soil, water and air for pollutants is setting limits. They restrict population increase - but they restrict as well the increase of production, what will urge a future economy to concentrate on useful and needed products
- The needed internalisation of external costs, as assignment of responsibility (= care) for global, not only local, destruction is a major steering tool. But it needs a political process to come into being and to get effective.
- Dedication to decent work, family and society should be more rewarded than an irresponsible gambling for profit at any rate and costs:
- Integration/coordination/aggregation of economic development and socio-cultural development - preservíng the diversity of cultures.
As there is a known need to take the whelm of development from the undemocratic, gambler's capital market, that is nowadays deciding on the future of people, towns, regions and states, we need more POLITICS - It does not need to be at any rate in its institutionalized form with the aggregation of interests by parties and the fight for power, but politics that allow all social groups first to understand what is going on and what they can do to lead development towards feasible and wanted aims.
Politics has primarily to check misuse of power, to assist the poor and powerless have-nots against the have-alls - not the opposite as is at present the case.
Warning to the reader and self-critique:
The following chapter has to be taken with care, as the author clearly favours fieldwork and "grassroots" approaches, born out of thorough syndicalist-federalistic political conviction, confirmed through the last nine years experience in development work with tribal societies. The institutions are numerous (s. list in appendix IV) is not thought as a "scientific" analysis of international institutions - it is the result of a scientific analysis of approaches and effects of international assistance on and at the local level. The author is caustic against far reaching proposals ("paper-born-and-stuck") that never reach the ground. He considers the real "politics" as the one that is done by people, discussing together about known and understood problems, searching solutions in an open dialogue. As strategic situation and problem analysis, consisting of participatory information collection and distribution, interpretation, understanding, orientation and, last not least, action. Effective politics has to be rooted in the local culture and socio-economics. An effective policy is communication and action. Global World Politics is, unlike global business, more talk and papers than action.
Still, even if biased, lets have a look at the different potential strategies on different political levels, as there are:
- international organisations
- nation states
- regional cooperation
- local administration, communities
- the individual
What are those international organisations doing? Their raw material is informations (knowledge) and funds (means). The information they would have to process, that means to understand and make understandable for the target groups, that means to be translated into a form that is first acceptable in the local context and second, that is able to motivate local action.
Firsthand they are discussion forums and turntables for informations and funds that should lead to certain actions. (That's the author's own definition!). The output is conventions and contracts on common values and aims, established by international and national dialogue. The structures, as expensive and impressive they are, do not fulfill much more of a function than to "distribute such informations. (They won't like such a definition, but that's based on experience). So here we will deal mainly with the adaptation of information to the local needs. (The adaptation of the "hardware", the established political and administrative structures (and buildings) will be discussed in chapters 4.5 to 4.7 for the Yemen).
Institutions
UN > UNDP's Statement of Purpose:
WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED
... to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of
men and women and of nations large and small,
... to promote social progress and better standards of life
in larger freedom, and for these ends
... to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims ...
[from the preamble to the Charter of the United Nations ]
UNDP promotes human development. We seek to create opportunities through which people's abilities, talents and creativity can find full expression. We aspire to a world where people can better their lives in a manner of their own choosing. We recognise that development today must safeguard the options of future generations.
UNDP invests in people. We help countries to develop the capacity to manage their economies, fight poverty, ignorance and disease, conserve the environment, stimulate technological innovation, and recognize and enhance the contribution of women to society.
UNDP is active (in collaboration with the World Bank and other UN organisations) in the fields of sustainable production, cleaner production, waste reduction, the improvement of efficiency, and in the sustainable management and use of natural resources. A specific problem represent the drylands, covering 40% of the land area of the earth. More than one billion people living in these areas and are at risk from the effects of this loss of productivity on their livelihoods. Strategic actions that are taken by the main executing agency UNEP:
1. Improve policy-relevant assessment of drylands degradation.
2. Increase global awareness of dryland and desertification issues.
3. Promote actions in support of the UN convention to combat desertification and the development of national, subregional and regional action programmes, assist in the preparation of projects to reverse land degradation for submission for GEF financing. Develop tools and guidelines for sustainable dryland management.
4. Increase people-oriented approaches in sustainable land use and natural resources management.
That sounds all very positive. For comments on the real approaches and effective impact in the field see chapter (4.7).
FAO - The Food and Agricultural Organisation:
It is still the largest international organisation dealing with forestry. In spite of the urgent need, of roughly 15.4 Million ha of forest lost per year, the share of forestry is declining. In 1956 it was still 9.1% of the budget, in the 90s it declined to 4.4%!
Due to that, the need for a specific UN Forestry organisation has been formulated (by Canadian Forestry Commission).
As main cause of the problem nowadays mainly the common ownership of forests and range is identified, and privatisation as the main solution.
Unluckily, profit-orientation in forestry is quite often not of much help. The infrastructure established in TFAP projects proofed rather destructive for the forests as it facilitated wood harvest, transport and sales - while structures to enhance care for the forest where still laking. The "empowerment" of local people, the building of local structures and capacity to deal with management and protection of the natural environment needs time. It needs an adaptation of politics, a change of minds, a lot of training and discussions. Forests are economically of minor importance - they are "peripheral". That means, without special care they are used, abused and replaced by more productive land uses!
What concerns information, FAO is publishing excellent papers on the subject of agroforestry and social forestry, especially the "Community Forestry Notes".
UNEP - Mission:
To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. [
UNEP Homepage ] UNEP is active in over 70 countries since 1975.UNEP Programme:
- Sustainable management and use of natural resources: Water Security in Africa. Regional Seas Programme. Protection of the Marine Environment from Human Activities. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (ITTO, CSD). Wildlife Conservation (World Conservation Monitoring Center/databases). Biosafety. Sustainable Agriculture (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Climate. Desertification Control.
- Sustainable production and consumption: Cleaner Production. Transfer of Green Production (International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC). Ecotourism. Emergency Response.
- A better environment for human health and well-being: Disaster Relief. Chemical Databanks.
- Globalization of the economy and the environment: Integration of environment in development planning and decision making, environmental economic analysis, environmental impact assessment. Environmental and natural resource accounting: manuals: Build capacity in developing countries and countries with economies in transition to deal with free-market economies. Ozone.
> International treaties elaborated and implemented under UNEP's auspices:
- Transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal (Basel Convention)
- Illegal trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES),
- Convention on migratory species (CMS) ....
Capacity building: Establishment of environmental institutions.
- Strengthening of environmental legislation: A computerized environmental law information base for governments and other users has been established on the Internet. The merger of this database with IUCN database will ensure that the best global legal information is effectively enhanced to serve the global, regional and national needs.
- Dissemination of information: Training in the use of new analytical tools and environmental education. Environment information and assessment programmes. Global environmental monitoring system (GEMS). Global environmental outlook (GEO). World resources report. State of the environment source book. Indicators for sustainable development (with DPCD, UNSTAT, SCOPE). System-wide earthwatch. Global 500 Roll of Honour.
- Global resource information database (GRID).
- Environment and natural resources information network (ENRIN) - helps to develop national and sub-regional capacities of institutions for environmental data management focussing on cooperative state of the environment assessment and reporting.
- INFOTERRA - is a global network for environmental information exchange and scientific and technical query response services operating through a network of government designated focal points. Hand in hand with the People. NGOs are of central importance to UNEP.
Environmental education and awareness: "Raising the public awareness on environmental issues is perhaps the most important activity of UNEP. ... He ultimate goal is not only to change the attitudes of people, but also to motivate and empower them to act for the environment."
This is a very extensive programme - disposing of very limited means (1996-7: 90-106 million). It is understandable, that the output consists mainly in providing information, is very spotty and often just verbal [no activities in Yemen e.g.].
| The problem with "information" is, that in dealing with environment we know what we "should" do. In many cases we even know how we might do it and how the respective laws should look like. But we don't know how to make the step from the "should" to the doing! |
UNESCO:
"The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the world by promoting collaboration among nations through education, science, culture and communication in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations."
UNESCO is undertaking prospective studies, assisting in the development of research, training and teaching. They produced excellent papers on that matter, provide expertise and participate in standard setting actions.
ILO:
Is promoting social justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights, conventions and recommendations on minimum standards of basic labour rights as the freedom of association, the right to organize, collective bargaining, abolition of forced labour, quality of opportunity and treatment. It provides technical assistance in: vocational training and rehabilitation, employment policy, labour administration, labour law and industrial relations, working conditions, management development, cooperatives, social security, labour statistics, occupational safety and health.
International Organisations not belonging to the UN:
IUCN:
Is developing global policies (forestry among others!) and conventions on sustainable use, indigenous people, protected areas, species conservation (Red List). Its speciality is the "experts network" - commissions with over 10000 participants!
It tries to integrate environmental debate from local and community level up to the national and global level, administrates a large legal database, provides expertise and field assistance in the protection of species and biotopes (national parks and protected areas).
In certain countries, the USA e.g. [sedwards@iucnus.org ], it has projects on community involvement in protected areas management where it can make use of its extensive specialists networks. But generally speaking, IUCN is rather developing strategic approaches and has limited experience in participatory planning and environmental care at grassroots.
In Yemen it was not able to develop activities, as neither the government, nor one of its agencies or an NGO could be convinced to pay for membership. Efforts of the author and many others were in vain - what indicates, that "information and advice" are insufficient "incentives" for poor countries - funds for projects are needed as well!
Further information on organisations that are here not mentioned - because they did not have activities in Yemen, not because they are less important, as e.g. WWF/Greepeace/and other NGOs can easily be found on the Internet. s. list in appendix.)
While the emphasis of international assistance is turning more and more towards "assistance through information" and assistance towards self-help" - funds are the major demand and expectation of receiving countries and institutions.
The major international fundraisers in the field of forestry and environment being:
World Bank: It spent e.g. 2.8 billion in 1995 on energy. In environment it concentrates on "Environmental Assessment", "improvement of "Efficiency" and "Cleaner Technologies".
GEF is the largest financial mechanism, providing grants and concessional funding for projects and programs that protect the global environment and promote sustainable economic growth. (???)
Themes: climate change, biological diversity, international waters, stratospheric ozone, land degradation, primarily desertification and deforestation.
It is jointly implemented by the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP. UNDP is identifying larger projects for international and national execution, as well as small grants projects for community groups and NGOs. UNEP is providing scientific and technical analysis for the advance of environmental management.
GEF is striving for universal participation. In 1994 73 governments participated in its activities, 2 billion $ were available for a three years period.
GEF projects must be country driven, incorporate consultations with local communities and, where appropriate, involve non-governmental organisations in project implementation.
IFAD works on the alleviation of rural poverty in developing, low income, countries. It tries to strengthen related policies:
- food security through increased agricultural production,
- improvement of nutritional levels and incomes of the poorest rural populations, landless, marginal farmers, pastoralists, fisherfolk, indigenous people, poor rural women.
Critique:
Compared with the demands formulated in the introduction to chapter 3.5, "banks - even development banks - are banks" and have to operate within the logical framework of economy. That means they have to remain profit and growth oriented, relying on the famous, unluckily steadily decreasing: "trickle-down effect". They won't be able to assume a function as nucleus of a new, really sustainable, no-growth-economy. Their investment is investment promising repayment and increased productivity. From the side of the governments and the locals it is often seen as "progress and development" by itself
As the major output of the international institutions is "information" (one might be nasty and say "paperwork"). Let's check what are the objectives of such information, what are the conditions for participants in this program, the means of the programme, the effects and resulting problems and, last not least, how can be dealt with the problem of information processing, how can information be turned into meaningful guidance for action.
As example I take one of the largest information suppliers in the UN-System (relevant for our problem: the management of natural resources), the SDNP (Sustainable Development Networking Programme) [http://www3.undp.org/ sdnp@sdnhq.undp.org ]. Its main objective is the deliberate sharing of information and expertise between all nations, as formulated in Agenda 21. [http://www3.undp.org/]. The following information (numbered following outlay of original text) has been taken from the "SDNP: Strategy/Evaluation Report" by Kate Wild [htp://www3.undp.org/evals/eval94.ht9m].
The main aim of easing access to information is to improve development decision making !!!: "Improve access to information for development decision-makers from all sectors and at all levels in developing countries." (81.) SDN is a consultative process among national institutions from all sectors of society aimed at opening access to information for use in sustainable development planning and decision-making at all levels. ... (3.)
SDN foresees two major handicaps of this technological approach, namely that "... countries with a relatively sophisticated technological infrastructure would tend to benefit most (52.), and that "Networking is primarily a human activity which can be supported, but not substituted, by computers and communication technologies; .... (53.)
Still its basic conviction is that information (knowledge) that is kept inside closed systems (be it science, politics or business) is useless for social development. The priority of human interaction in the processing of information, especially with the final objective, to lead to action, sets a priority on locally meaningful (interpretable, valuable) information: "This is an important condition for the exchange of information which enables institutions to tap into external expertise and some sources of information. However, much relevant development information is available locally, some of it stored in databases, on occasions built through technical cooperation projects. In defining SDN projects it may be time to encourage participating institutions to move more actively towards incorporating local information sources, in machinereadable, audio-visual and paper form, more effectively into the information exchange mechanisms. (54.) And even with the inclusion of such knowledge, some substantial time will be needed for dialogues on the different levels, especially at the base: "Review of CAPACITY 21 suggested that ... effecting permanent changes in public attitudes and behaviour can take as long as a generation and that UNDP may have underestimated "what was required to support long-term national dialogues involving not just governments but broad segments of civil societies". (58.)
The pragraph proofs at least that the problem tis book is dealing with is known to the headquarters!
"The principle must be accepted that the network is to be demand driven; the needs of consumers of information must be identified and the network must respond to those needs; ..." (23) "SDN is representative of a new UNDP approach to development which focuses on broad participation of different segments of society (governments, NGOs, the private sector, community organizations, academia), and emphasizes the need for self reliance and sustainability. (15.) "Projects are managed by SDN coordinators, selected by open competition. Host organisations for SDN units are selected on the basis of the feasibility study, with the agreement of the Steering Committee. They vary widely (IUCN in Pakistan, an NGO (the IMCA) in Korea, an office within the Ministry of the Environment in Indonesia and Bolivia, the UNDP office in Estonia, or example) must have the confidence of participants in their neutrality vis-a-vis all sectors and their willingness to open up their own information resources. (28.)
Sharing information with others is only the beginning. The next step, probably more important, is establishing dialogue as a two-way communication. Many, nay, most texts nowadays are offered, for free or on the market, but the reader has little possibility to give his opinion on it. And it is only the forum, the open market of ideas and the practical testing of such, that will allow to "confirm if they are true and valuable": "The SDN approach to network building is participatory. UNDP should accept that this will lead to information exchange related to broad and varied concepts of development determined by network members and that those concepts will change over time." (89.)
The database should contain all material generated inside the UN-System: "... cooperate with CSD (Committee on sustainable development) and all UN bodies to bring their information to the attention of national and regional SDNs. (46.) But presentation of information alone is insufficient. With it and with the "... strengthening of electronic networks has to go "the better use of indigenous knowledge. (17.) The inclusion of locally generated information is definitely foreseen: "The involvement of local consultants and expertise mitigates in favour of sustainability." (13.) Better use means, that knowledge has to be "translated" not only into the local languages, but especially into the indigenous concepts of thinking, valuing, interpreting, motivating, decision making.
15. ... Among the consequences of this approach are slower decision-making and less central control, but the expectation is that the process itself will lead to changes in cultures of information use that are more deeply rooted in national and local societies. These changes in their turn should, in the long run, lead to more effective, information based policy making and planning. (uba)
16. The SDN should be a tool to: coordinate and mobilize national, regional and international resources; effect the communication linkages and consultative processes required to promote sustainable development; and support capacity building.
43. The meeting noted a number of issues related to the implementation of the information components of Agenda 21 which had not yet been satisfactorily addressed and identified the following criteria for improving existing systems:
- a meaningful participatory approach
- effective feedback loops to encourage two-way flows of information;
- cost-effectiveness through better understanding of benefits and costs
- attention to particular needs of different users ...
64. Much of this development information is more easily available within the international system than within the countries that supplied it originally. .... UN information is largely wasted in terms of development decision-making at the national and local levels.
91. More focus should be put on the information components rather than the technology components of the network, and, in particular, on drawing local information into the exchange process.
96. Translate key material ....
The Need of adapting information to the local context = the need of a meta-communication on semantics and interpretations Iternational conferences, international agreements and strategies, even conventions - are nothing but paper (or 0/1-marks on a harddisk) - if this information is not relevant at the level of action > in the field. The difference of meaning that arises of different perspectives of interpretation are not dealt with those information processes. In "informatics "Data have no meaning themselves. The meaning and therefore the information or knowledge they represent is derived from the data by interpreting then on the basis of certain agreements and rules." [
Wintraecken p 2:]An Information system is therefore an information processing system that [
ibid p. 5: ]:- receives information and requests for information from its users and
- can store information in time
- can derive new information from given information.
"To derive new information" is critical. Electronic systems can only make such combinations they are programmed to make: "The information system always reacts to a given stimulus with the same response." [
ibid p. 8:] Or: "The grammar describes all of the conceptual aspects of the information exchange with the information system." [ibid p. 15:] The data that may be exchanged with the information system and their meanings are described one hundred percent by the grammar. It is a closed interpretation system - unlike human communication. This is the main difference to humans' free interpretation and reaction! Human communication can easily, playfully change interpretation patterns. (That is one major reason that makes literature attractive.) The electronic information processor can repeat knowledge, can repeat answers and combinations - but only as far as they can be calculated, in a formalised and repetitive way. "The information processor must answer the questions and execute the requests of the users in such a way that they do not violate the rules of the grammar." [ibid p. 232]. That this is not the case in human communication is the adaptive chance for social groups to re-interprete and change rules - if needed. This is the main problem of interdisciplinary approaches, as different interpretation systems, different grammars have to be combined - and this is not done just by putting different types of knowledge on the same computer. New approaches to development recognize that effective decision-making requires broad community participation and multidisciplinary inputs. SDN creates a space for interaction and information exchange for actors from all sectors of society and provides opportunities for cutting across disciplinary lines. (100) Technological information processing is surely useful, but it is a closed, fixed system that can only respond to local needs if data are reinterpreted by individuals and interpetations shared through communication. Information is only of use if in the hands (not only brains, that would not be sufficiennt!) of people that know how to use it.If this wealth of information is really to create the expected new approaches in problem solving is doubtful. It will not be a result of new technologies - but a new demand in coping with them: "New technologies have the potential to link people, institutions and information and break down institutional, disciplinary and geographic barriers in ways that we are only beginning to explore but which may radically alter approaches to problem solving and planning." [
ibid p. 101:] Those new techniques, the floods of information, create new needs in understanding complexity, in integrating knowledge.Human development starts with thinking, that means it starts with awareness (information) on problems. To tackle solutions needs a willful acceptance of the given problems, to undertake action needs motivation. Information is so by far not sufficient. (Force (policy and laws) not either.) Especially actions in favour of the natural and common environment need the common interest, need a common feeling of needs for action, need a common understanding.
Those are preconditions for acceptance, a problem of many democracies, even of Switzerland. The Swiss Section of UNESCO e.g. undertook a MAB-project at Davos [
Bosshard, W (Publ.); Wildi, O. & Ewald, K. (red):]. The result is, that land-use is at present nearly optimal, that any increase in productivity and any expansion of infrastructure and settlements would be destructive for productivity and diversity, agriculture would use the best lands, the already critical quality of the air would get worse, large parts of the settlements are already now threatened by avalanches, the region would loose attractivity for tourism. That means the aim is: no more growth! From the point of view of biological diversity the situation is even more critical: "Would some of the changed uses of the past years be reversed, one might expect a stabilisation or even increase of phytosociological diversity." [ibid "Szenarien" p 283:]Scientifically it is a very accurate study - but - it does not contain the slightest hint (or even the question) how this objective might be reached or brought into discussion.
Open Questions:
> How can economic restrictions (= respect for nature and all human beings) be discussed, motivated and managed?
- Economy says it can't (see foregoing chapters).
- Politics can't because they have to promise growth and progress.
- Ecologists say it must and are teaching it.
- Theologists have been preaching it.
- Philosphers are discussing it:
For the philosophical discussion of such fields the following two forums are of interest:
ODS (Office of Development Studies) papers:
ODS presents discussion papers with the intent "to stimulate debate and further research. The foreword to each paper therefore explicitly invites readers to share their views and comments, to submit their own studies for eventual publications under this series, and to address any other information or queries they may have. This invitation is addressed to individual developmental thinkers and practitioners as well as development research centers and other interested parties." "The discussion papers are not one-time-events. They are part of an iterative process involving global dialogue, shared research efforts and feedback on key issues facing mankind."
The approach is quite large:
- consistency between economic growth, social objectives and environmental concerns
- a new framework for international cooperation including a new relationship between private finance and development
The emphasis in both areas is on identifying, and elaborating through systematic research, analysis and debate, practical and pragmatic policy measures that could make a difference and help foster progress towards sustainable human development worldwide.
UNESCO: Philosophical Web and Forum: Paris Declaration for Philosophy
The participants:
Note that the problems with which philosophy deals are the universal problems of human life and existence;
Believe that philosophical reflections can and should contribute to the understanding and conduct of human affairs;
Consider that the practice of philosophy, which does not exclude any idea from free discussion and which endeavours to establish the exact definition of concepts used, to verify the validity of lines of reasoning and to scrutinize closely the arguments of others, enables each individual to learn to think independently;
Emphasize that philosophy teaching encourages open-mindedness, civic responsibility, understanding and tolerance among individuals and groups;
Reaffirm that philosophy education, by training independently-minded, thoughtful people, capable of resisting various forms of propaganda, prepares everyone to shoulder their responsibilities in regard to the great questions of the contemporary world, particularly in the field of ethics;
Philosophy can build a truly participatory, open base for common development as philosophy has to be critical (truth-seeking) towards all ideologies - even (or especially) those that assume a religious quality, as nowadays science and especially economics. Richard Rorty in the Opening Debate "Moral Universalism and Economic Triage": "James and Nietzsche viewed this sort of scientism as an unfortunate persistence of religious ways of thinking. They urged that the vocabulary of physics is simply one useful vocabulary among others. Both thought that the Enlightenment's attempt to put science in the place of theology was a mistake, as was the initial assumption that the universe somehow demands a certain description. ... Different purposes demand different tools.
Adopting this view means replacing the choice between theological, scientific and metaphysical descriptions of the world with a choice between human purposes. But the choice of what purposes to have is almost always, in practise, a choice among groups of people rather than a choice among abstract formula."
He started from the question "what are we", arriving at the conclusion, that the major problem is not what, but who are we, to which group do we belong, which aims do we strive for. "Kant's question: what can we hope? ... asks a question about future time. But this question about the future is not a request for a prediction, but rather for a project. To ask who we are becomes a way of asking what future we should try, cooperatively, to built."
As James said: "we" are the inhabitants of a global cooperative - the problem of social forestry, of creating local social groups that are willing and able to take over responsibility for the management of their forest - has its global parallel. But if the local community does either not exist, or is no able to assume responsibility for needed care - "global papers and conventions" are useless.
Beyond the international, we have mainly the following levels that can assume responsibility: state, region, community, local social groups and individuals. While the market is targeting the individual directly, the solution of before mentioned problems needs the aggregation of interest and power. Marshall still expected a revolution of thought, a progressive capitalism, a society in which "economic chivalry" of businesspeople will be the base for care for the workers and win over pure profit orientation". [
after Piper p. 80:] The victory of "shareholder's interest" shows the opposite and forces the state to overtake new duties. While the state is developing new instruments of steering, those that profit from the status quo are developing strategies on how to avoid steering. So there are mainly two strategies left:a) Balance of power, powerplay, economic warfare - e.g the states of Europe cooperate economically to build a block against USA and Asia - or - the workers cooperate internationally to build a powerblock in defense against international capital. "The environment" has not much chance to get the same representation in view of increasing economical problems.
b) National or regional units that can take responsibility for an integral development that does not eliminate large parts of the workforce and that does not ruin the environment. That means: a certain cooperative planning and steering of "the market" - or on the monetary base: the revival of regional exchange markets (s. 3.3.3.1).
c) Steering through the fully aware consumer. It is the consumer who decides on products, so on the conditions of their production. He can steer the development towards more sustainability - but only with difficulty towards more equality and justice ... (e.g. through a social label, analogous to existing environmental labels).
The powerplay is not very promising. Here politics is the continuation of war with other means. As Walter Eucken (the father of social market-economy) said "it is not only the misuse of economic power that has to be fought, but the economic power itself." The politics of "laisser faire" he considers as just a formal freedom. The economic regulations should be of such a kind, that the people are free." His recommendation was not to discriminate small and middle enterprises, rather to stimulate them. [
after Piper p. 200 and before]For Galbraith [
Piper p. 289]: "The system is working nevertheless, because the industrial giants encounter opposing power in the form of labour unions and other social groups. Where this balance does not exist, the state has to enforce the countering powers."Unluckily the countering and controlling powers are losing ground. The strive for economic growth is opposing them - and so many "liberal" governments are (USA, GB ...). The capitalist workers believe in "the growth myth" - as the communist workers believed in their "coming workers' paradise". But in the end Myrdal might proof right again, saying [
Myrdal (1957) p. 43/45]: "The under-privileged groups pressed for greater equality. From time immemorial, history records uprising of the poor against the rich, the exploited countryside against the city, the peasants against the landlord." "The poor are the many and even the relatively poor are the great majority, wherever the voting line is drawn." But the underprivileged are disaggregated, and they are still dreaming of growth and that this system will allow them to become the one shoecleaner out of thousands, the one that succeeds in getting millionaire."The organisation of society as nation-state is today more "normal" and widespread than ever, what can be seen from the relative insignificance of international and supranational organisations. The social leading role of the state is not uncontested, but it is so far without alternative. Especially economy was not able to overtake that role, as it can't produce legitimate, socially binding decisions and its role as dominant problem creator ... does not by a long way make it a coordination and steering mechanism." [
Willke p. 160:] This would be the aim of state planning" after Georgescu-Roegen p. 347]: "As Lowe presents it, Political Economics is "the theory of controlled economic systems." It presupposes a "controlling authority" capable of selecting the optimal "macrogoal" of economy." The tasks of the same authority are:(1) to determine the material course that will move the system toward the chosen macrogoal;
(2) to find out the behavioral patterns required by this course and the motivations capable of fostering these patterns; and
(3) to discover the central regulations that will induce these "goal-adequate" motivations."
This certainly contains a certain belief in the feasibility of social engineering, a critical point for social forestry in Yemen and as well critical for Georgescu-Roegen. "Societies" whose macrogoal is determined are e.g. bees, ants and termites. Generalisation and transfer of such specific theories to social matters has been done in the forms of biologism, sociologism ... and is ongoing in the form of economism: "Man has been so successful in controlling to his advantage one physical process after another that he could not stop short of believing that he can achieve the same feat in the other domains."
Schumpeter [
after Piper p. 101:] expected, that the development towards a mature capitalism will lead to the result, that large trusts are overtaking the role of the "innovators". No more the small, aggressive little entrepreneur, driven by a craving for a higher social status are taking key decisions, but payed managers - the innovation process is bureaucratised. Moreover, capitalism produces a large host of intellectuals that are hostile towards it and carry their discontent into the population. All this is enhanced by the breakdown of the middle-class family. At some time or other bureaucratised capitalism will change into a planned socialism, what after Schumpeter is not so bad, as the socialist economy will probably function better than monopoly capitalism."Mitchell [
ibid p. 190 ff.:] recommended an intelligent economic planning - no central planning - "but the basic will of the state to intervene with economy if the market produces unwanted results that do not contribute to common welfare." "More pronounced than his famous colleague John Maynard Keynes he stood in for a regulated economy in which the citizen has a large right of participation on the all-over economic aims." For him small steps, intelligent experiments were "at any rate better than waiting for the effects of an invisible hand or the automatically activated market forces."Röpke asked for structural politics conform to the market: land use planning, cutting of high profits, credits for the creation of a widespread ownership, research and planning targeted towards social and environmental compatibility. To avoid the "social costs" of large scale companies, production should be done in radically decentralised small factories.
Myrdal, opposing all recent economic recommendations, puts the emphasis not on international competitivity, but on local subsistence and increasing (! - not as recommended by monetarists - decreasing) local incomes [
Myrdal p. 52:]: "What would be rational is above all to increase productivity, incomes and living standards in the larger agricultural subsistence sectors, so as to raise the supply price of labour, and in manufactoring industry. This would engender economic development and raise incomes. But trade itself does not lead to such a development; ..."Kondratjew recommended a "perspective", "genetic" planning, starting from agriculture, giving freedom to the spontaneous forces of the market.
If economy nowadays is overtaking the setting of aims and rules, this does not mean that the world is set in order. The ongoing process of the development of the EU into a monetary union with a single currency shows the underlying problems and limits of this "world systems". A European monetary union does not only need a consent on the monetary policy, but a common policy on economy, traffic, social and educational aims. The aim of a common currency will subdue local, differing economic and social policies. It is known from the Thirties, that creating a local currency (Gesell / Lederer) is an important means of dealing with unemployment. Devaluation is an other, more important, large scale, one. If the labour market can really be treated as secondary to the capital markets and to the needs of global market development - is most probably not yet decided. The same is true for developing countries, that need a certain protection of their starting economies: "Many manufacturing industries are thwarted in their growth or prevented from ever coming into existence because of the small size of the domestic market. This market is frequently flooded by foreign imports from sources to which this demand is often only marginal. By providing protection against outside competitions, local industries can be given their chance." [
Myrdal p. 94: ]"... the whole meaning of a national plan is to give investment such protection from the market force as will permit it to be undertaken in spite of the fact that it would not be remunerative according to private business calculations. It is here that the national state comes in as representing the common and long-term interest of the community at large." (uboa) [
ibid p. 86-87:]Hawken exclaims that the most frightening of our political and economically motivated aversion to deal with limits on the global scale is the fact, that there is a total agreement on what such means at the local scale." [
Hawken p. 45:] His first aim would be to reduce consumption of energy and natural resources for about 80% during the next fifty years. The second aim is, to create secure, stable and rewarding jobs for all people of the whole world. [ibid p.11:] This may sound queer, utopical, unrealistic - but given the shrinking reserves of many natural resources, be it minerals (petrol) or living (fish) the factual limits are given. As Georgescu-Roegen he says that while we are appropriating too much, we waste too much. [ibid p. 60:]One of the "economic" means to steer society is taxes. In relation to environment and un-employment the major recommendation is, to change from taxing incomes towards taxing energy. The change towards more energy efficient techniques would create lots of workplaces, as labour is replaced by energy driven machines. This process is enhanced by taxing incomes and might be reverted by taxing energy use.
Given the problem and its background he recommends the following two approaches:
1) System and environment [ Wendell Berry: Conservation is Good Work. In Hawken p. 192: ]: "The dilemma is, that we allowed to our suppliers to draw the economic borders so far out, that we can't be held responsible for the effects caused by us." The limits of the (economic) system have to be drawn in a way (the same as in social forestry!) that responsibilities can be assigned to precise persons or institutions. An interesting, even if slightly "utopic" idea, has been mentioned by Hawken [Hawken p. 163:]: "Interestingly capital punishment is less controversial than the idea, certain companies might have forfeited the right of existence."2) Social models and ideologies [ Kirkpatrick Sale in Hawken p. 194]: "Only a general overhaul of this civilisation and an alienation of its deep-rooted Gods - progress, growth, exploitation, technique, materialism, human mentality and power - will contribute substantially to stop environmental destruction, and it is hardly imaginable, that a sheer change of lifestyle may have a sustainable effect on it." |
But - the development of the human society is not a physical process, is not (to be!) driven by causalities, but by ideas, hopes, needs, dreams - and has to respect limits set by nature and humanitarian reasons. Goals imposed "from above", be it the state or an other (financial e.g.) elite, will not be easily overtaken by "the masses", what makes coercion necessary. "Steering" of social development has to be based on freedom, that means it has to motivate people, it has to be done as a mediation of differing interests and values. Social development needs participation - participation starts in local groups with local politics. Steering, setting rules for behaviour and action is ethics - as it tells us what we should do. If it has to be done in a democratic way, respecting freedom of the individual and of social development, it can't be done as a "science", nor can it be rules coming from "high up - far away", but it must be the development of potentials, it must develop rules out of an honest understanding of the present situation, taking into account the historical roots on the one, the wanted development on the other side. Especially it can't forfeit an ex-ante evaluation of the future implications of development!
Hawken's description of environmental meetings [
Hawken p. 276:] lists the main requirements for local participation:|
- Open for everybody. - Recognise differences of opinions. - Not be a party (with determined strategies and tactics, struggling for power) - but: - be recognised by politics and - strive for a consensus of differing desires, needs and perceptions, creating hope and encourage change. |
This would create a "natural constitution" of rights and responsibilities, and an "endless dialogue among people how one can live without doing harm to the world."
The international trade, (as any market system), enhanced by monetaristic theory, does not assume local responsibility, does not assume responsibility for equality and justice. Less productive regions are just left out - what fits the theory - but not humanitarian development needs! While globally operating, international companies are picking out laws, goods, production processes, workplaces and workforces only in view of maximum profit, it is the locals who need to protect their resources. The responsibility to care for the local (natural and social) environment remains with them. That is a fact, as the "costs" of environmental and social destruction will have to be payed totally by the locals - not by the international community or internationally operating companies - not even by the national governments.
Last not least - to assume local and regional responsibility - when needed in defense against "internationalism", is the only way to survive for many local cultures, their lifestyles, languages and traditions. Only if local politics do not succumb to international domination, a "cultural mix" can be kept alive.
Hawken offers an excellent example of local economic dealing with the natural environment - the example of Somalia. Due to the change from subsistence towards production for the markets, the export of livestock has multiplied in recent years - 10 times since 1955! The effect is overuse of range and water, erosion, lack of fodder, lack of food, overuse of water [
after Hawken p. 243 f:]. Still there is a way out of Hardin's dilemma of the destruction of open access systems. A "company" would tend to maximise income from the grazing rights, so there would be no economic interest in overgrazing, as it would diminish the long-term value of the company. It would steer grazing in such a way, to create maximum income. Moreover it would care for yields, growth, rotation and fencing.The grazing company under public control is a useful model for the security of our public goods, .... First they are controlled by their clients ... If they accept the control, they receive monopolistic user rights and a certain level of profit is guaranteed. This allows them to engage in long-term projects and to attract capital with low costs due to low risks.
Definitely a good idea. The author did himself a consultancy in Somaliland [
Herzog (1996): "Forestry and Woodland Management in Somaliland: Problems, Background, Development Potentials."]. The main recommendations, established through local workshops, were:a) Technical: enrich the aquifer through watershed management, the establishment of contour bounds, combined with the plantation of fodder-shrubs and food.
b) Social: to assist communities by a mobile extension group in the revitalisation of cooperatives, especially charcoal cooperatives.
c) Legal: National assistance to the villages and regions in the protection of their woodlands.
What is being done in this matter: Digging more water holes. That's where the funds could be made available! Development agencies are reluctant to engage in politics, be it even local.
The monetary solution concerning unstable development phases (booms and recessions) is "to let the available money grow continuously, so that companies and private households can plan in security and economy has space for expansion." [
Friedmann, in Piper p. 277:] Unequal distributions between capital and labour, between incomes, between wealth, are not dealt with, as considered as natural and needed.The local version is Gesell's local "free-money". This local currency, opposite to traditional banking, loses part of its value when deposited. That foces it to "turn around, to be constantly in the market. Interest is neutralised, there is no accumulation of money and power. As long as money and goods are in an equilibrium, this "currency" stays stable. It has as well multiple advantages for environment and development, as it:
- stops unsustainable growth, so far needed to pay back interests
- stops accumulation of depth of developing countries
- enhances subsistence economy and the quality of work
Additional to local currency a reform of land-ownership would be needed, declaring the common ownership of lands, while allowing for private user rights. (What is in fact given with tribal lands - where it unlucily did not proof sufficient to protect them from overuse!)
Cooperation is needed. The purely individual approach is most probably insufficient. Already Gesell [
Piper p. 226:] had to accept that: "His confidence, that "reasonability" of thought would be sufficient to gain acceptance, proofed straight away naif." The control of the market and its destructive side-effects on nature and society would need an aware, well informed and willing consumer. He would have to be more "value oriented", what means, he would have to accept higher prices for goods that are produced under conditions with less negative effects. Certain successes have been attained in this respect with ecologically produced bio-food. First steps (certification) are being undertaken to facilitate sustainable production of wood - but little is done so far in favour of "social impact assessment". A lot of (educational) work has still to be done in this respect.
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brainworker |
Table of Content |
3.2: Management |
3.4 Knowledge-Action-Learning |
