Yemen: Photoreport on social forestry Das Problem der Bewirtschaftung arider Buschwälder  Strategische Empfehlungen für Umweltprojekte im tribalen Islamischen Raum Topik - eine archaische Forschungsmethode zur Erschliessung des Gemeinsinns. Ethiopia: Arba Gugu Mountain-Forests Somaliland's Forestry Potential Somaliland: Photoreport on Forestry Forestry and Woodland Management in Somaliland.  A short overview: Somaliland's Problems. Background: Environmental, social and political structures. A modular development programme  Tajikistan's Forestry Potential

Martin Herzog Inselstrasse 62 4057 Basel   Tel/Fax: (061) 831 80 15   hewww@brainworker.ch   search/Index/Themen sitemap

3 Water, Range, Woodlands, Charcoal,

Communities, Education, Extension among Nomads, Women:

 

A Modular, Participatory and Iterative Development Programme

 

The idea of Caritas is to find out how Caritas could assist Somaliland, without being drawn into long-term commitments with never-ending demands (s. up, comments on nurseries). The problem is now to get an idea how projects might be tackled, leaving the possibility and freedom to step back without doing too much harm and damage.

That means that Caritas is not going for large scale projects as e.g. the "Northern Range Development Project", where most the time and money was spent on establishing infrastructure. That means that Caritas does not want to start expensive, long term and large scale commitments (as e.g. the Batalala proposal - done by Caritas Egypt!) - that have no local backing and will break down totally, as soon as the donor decides to move out.

That means, while looking at the whole problem in a systems oriented approach, we have to look out for possibilities to "break up" the all-embracing approach into smaller, locally mmanageable bits, into modules that have to be interrelated. To guarantee local participation, the only base for sustainability, the projects have to be developed out of the locally perceived problems and needs, in a participatory way.

Due to the lack of information and of experience (especially of some positive experience!) on development projects in Somaliland, the approach will have to be carefully monitored, periodically evaluated and adapted - in an iterative way. [That to explain the lengthy title].

3.1 Water and/or Range?!

Water in Somaliland is one of the major problems - as in any semiarid country. Either there is not enough and there is drought - or there is too much and we are having floods (both in May 1996). The scarcity of water is already critical at Hargeisa. Water, some 2-4000m3 daily, is pumped from Gedebile - 240m below Hargeisa. The water table is lowering. The irrigation of the fruit orchards at Gedebile has been stopped by the mayor of Hargeisa. Water harvesting, the replenishment of the water reserves will be needed sooner or later, as the alternative station is at Dibarawine, near Boroma. But this one is 420 m below the level of Hargeisa and at a distance of 400km ‑ what makes this task quite  costly. There was again a Chinese proposal to establish small earth dams inside the tugs to recharge the aquifers and to prevent erosion with contour bounds.

Webuser-Beitrag von Thomas Diettrich, Namibia, 10.11.03: Somalia Anti-Desertification: Artificial Ground-Water recharge by means of Subsurface Dams.

While in the valley of the Golis range water can be found almost all the year round at shallow wells (5-12m), more to the south, especially to the south-east, the water table is much deeper. Traditional water sources are springs, wells, wars (natural ponds), balleys (artificial ponds), and berkeds (large cementlined tanks). With the introduction of modern technology, the field has expanded to include deep drilled wells with motorized pumps. The economic handling of those is still "problematic":

 

At Ged Belad (meaning "big tree" - no such can be found anymore!) a well has been established, some 180m deep. During the dry season it is overused, the pump is working 24 hours a day. There is no money available to make a larger tank, to buy a new generator or to replace the pump. The fees collected for the water are just sufficient to pay for diesel.

At Tog Wajale, on the border to Ethiopia, the water depth is only 70m, but for the 15000 people the 10 drums of water delivered per day by the pump are insufficient.

 

On the other hand, the more water points are available, the more range is overgrazed!

 

So for the Somalis - RUNOFF - as a loss of water and the erosion connected to it, are the main problems.

 

But those problems are interconnected. The range has been and is being neglected. Overgrazing, trampling and soil compaction increase the runoff. Soil and water conservation projects have priority. There is a need of transfer of technology knowledge to the Somali pastoralists [s. module EXTENSION].

 

Without range no livestock, without livestock no Somaliland!

 

So for the Somalis - RUNOFF - as a loss of water and the erosion connected only be done in association with grazing management plans for the areas.

 

 [This is a major part of the Forest and Range Law! s. App. A)

 

In fact the Ministry of Forestry (the former "National Range Agency") has wide environmental protection powers. It would have to license and register all boreholes, wars, balleys and berkeds, particularly for livestock watering, in rural areas.

Would have ... Unluckily the law is not ratified and the institution not really functional. Moreover the "National Water Committee" is composed of the Ministry of Planning, of Agriculture, of Livestock, Forest and Range, of Health, of the Interior - and chaired by the Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources! The latter one is at present distributing licenses without any checking of need and without an environmental impact assessment. For UNOPS-projects e.g. the use of its checklist (s. appendix) is compulsory. Effects of project activities on agriculture, soil, water and air, noise, aquatic and other habitats, endangered species have to be checked. The approach and results of Oxfam might be of some interest here as well.

3.1.1 Watershed Management Models for Somaliland  

The care being taken for rangeland is minimal. The main - well, the only - principle applied so far are the range reserves, giving the range a rest-period, a chance to regenerate.

There is no tradition of active measures to prevent erosion, to improve the range or the wood production. Economically this is very understandable, as

     a) the rangeland is common

     b) range use and productivity is very marginal.

Efforts would not be profitable for a private person - but probably for a village whose motto should be:

 

               common care for common lands!).

 

If the needed care is given depends not only on ownership and economy, but as well on traditions and education.

Agriculture is the field where private efforts in soil stabilisation are profitable. First the measures, as contour‑bounds or terraces, allow the production of crops. Second, dams and terraces could be used for agroforestry plantation with fodder grasses, shrubs or trees.

But only care‑full agriculture can control erosion. Care‑less

agriculture and range-use are enhancing it, what the case of Ethiopia shows.

Terraces, as the other structures, need constant maintenance. If the economy of terrace farming is dwindling and terraces are neglected, the situation is worse than without terraces, as the case of Yemen shows.

 

 

Range-Woodland-Watershed-Management-Models

 

Dr. Awale proposes on the water sector to establish more rainwater catchments. At the time the cost of 200l water is 150 Somali Shillings.

With a pond of 25m x 25m x 2m two families could survive for 1 year with their animals. An average family with 7 members might keep some 50 sheep and goat + 5 cows. Such storage facilities should be established above the farmland and would allow to irrigate some crops and as well fodder crops.

 

Projects as the planned one at Abdal with 4 x 4 km seem too big and will cause problems due to the heavy restriction imposed on livestock movement of the nomads and even more so of the villages in the area!

Grass, hay and silage production should first be tried on a small scale, on farms ‑ together with water harvesting and storing. Water catchment and production have to be improved.

 

Good grasses for fodder are:

Alphalpha / Aristida spinosa ("Majeen") / Atriplex / Bermuda Grass (Cynodon), Cenchrus ciliaris / Chrysopogon ancheri ("Dareemo" / "Dixi") / Eragrostis, Sudan Grass (Dactylodon).

Mainly local species should be used!!! Many of such are threatened ‑but still growing under the protection of bushes and of Aloe.

Unluckily recommendations can't be based on trials and scientific results. Even from the "Northern Range Improvement Project" only recommendations on "what should be tried" are available, but no results: "Annex I: Among the many species of native plants, those that have to be studied and tried on site are:

 

Item                          Application

‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

shrubs and trees

Leptadenia pyrotechnica    sand dune stabilisation

Ochradenus baccatus                   "

Salvadora persica            forage, fuel

Dobera glabra                fuel, forage

Acacia sp                         "   fence and feed

Balanites                         "        "

Capparis decidua                      "    fuel

Cadaba glandulosa            forage

Cadaba farinosa              forage

Maerua crassifolia                    "

Combretum aculeatum          forage

Crataeva adanoni                      "    fuel

Bauhinia rufescens                    "

Ptercoarpus lucens                    "

Grewia sp                             "    fuel

Ziziphus mauritania                   "    "    fence

     " spina‑christi              "   "          "

salt bush                             "

 

a) indigenous species (4 ?):

1. Grasses: Conchrus ciliaris, Dichanthirium sp, Sprorobolus sp ³⁰⁾, Andropogon anche, Cynodon dactylum, Panicum maximum, Panicum turgidum.
2. Salt bush: Atriplex sp, Salsola
3. Trees: Casuarina, Acacia cyanophylla, A. senegal, A. melifera, Opuntia (spineless), Grewia.
4. Exotics: Setana, Medicago

The Badlands, south-east of Sheikh, are a heavily eroded patch of red soil, where no vegetation is left except some Acacias (A. horrida). Eucalypts have been successfully planted on contours. Microdams and microcatchments have been stabilised with Sisal. Natural reseeding and revegetation is expected (what has indeed happened with similar experiments in Yemen).

Sisal is a very useful plant for the production of fibre for ropes, mats and baskets. The flower pods are  heavily used for roofs and houses. Due to that, the seeds are sometimes difficult to find. Sisal from Tanzania and Sambia is said to be better.

 

The watershed management model COOPI is using at Boroma, is very developed, but as well quite expensive ($ 10,000/ha). As enormous areas have to be treated in Somaliland, some cheaper model will have to be developed.

3.2 Natural Forests and Reserves

3.2.1 The Natural Forests of Somaliland at Daloh and Erigavo

The geographical situation of those forests and the species growing there have been mentioned in chapter 2.1.2.

The area is quite important on a national level, as it is the largest area of natural forests, it had a sawmill and was once able to supply wood to Mogadishu. It is important on the local level, as the forest might create jobs in the forest management and protection, as well as in wood harvesting and processing.

There is quite some interest of the local NGOs in its development (s. Appendix B):

• ARDO, Forestry & Rural Development Organisation wants to develop Frankincense nurseries.

• SOMTRAG, Somali Transformation Group, proposes a reforestation project at Erigavo, including a nursery, the rehabilitation of the sawmill and the improvement of charcoal kilns and stoves.

In spite of claims that the area is save, precisely during the days when the consultant wanted to fly to Erigavo, the representative of GTZ has been captured and taken hostage. So, unluckily, no first-hand data on the subject of natural forest management, on the question of natural regeneration, increase rate, sustainable productivity, transport needs and the shape of the saw-mill can be quoted here. But it seems that some work has been done beforehand. The relevant literature on the subject of Erigavo is:

• Bergstrom, T [1975]: Trials with cuttings from francincense trees in Debbis.
•   "    : 1975 Forest Resources of Daloh
• Flamwell, C [?]: Improved methods of production at Erigavo sawmill.
• Lawrie [1958]: Forests of the Somaliland Protectorate
• Lessau, J. [1975]: Report on Al Mado Forest Reserve

•    "    [1976]: Forestry Development in N. Somalia FAO SOM/72/012 Field Doc. No. 2

Moreover the "Somalia Ecological Society" might have some interesting information as well and should be contacted:

• Mr John D. Leefe OBE. The Spinney, Clipsham Road, Stretton, Oakham, LEIC 15 7QS.     And:     - Mr. A.S. Hassan, 31 Flyfield, Six Acres Estate, London N4 3PJ, England. FAX 0171 263 3658.   As well as:

• Dr Mats Thulin, working on the "Flora of Somalia!, Uppsala University, Dept. of Syst. Botany, Villavagen 6, S-75236, Uppsala, Sweden.

Daloh forest, on the northern escarpment, is quite close to Erigavo (9 km). The forest of some (6 x 40=) 240 km‑2 has been protected (gazetted) by the British.  As it is the area with the highest mountains (7927 ft) it can be expected that the rainfall is quite high. There is a tourist lodge, but its actual shape is unknown.

 

The ministry does not have any experience and data on the management of natural forests and the productivity of such. Management of natural forests is new for all the neighbouring countries (Yemen, Ethiopia and Somalia) and needs a lot of fundamental work.

 

At Erigavo some 10,000 people live, in the whole district maximum 50,000 (what is a very "guessy" estimate). There is a primary school, the secondary school would need a roof. In the surrounding villages there are no schools.

Most people here are herdsmen. Some farming has started and a few fruit trees have been planted. Some people are livestock traders and import food, clothes, biscuits from Yemen.

 

The sawmill is inside Erigavo, but has been destroyed during the war. (Gregory Fidel from CARITAS Somalia is sure that the sawmill at Erigavo was already destroyed in 1964 when he assisted in the construction of the runway.)

Before the logs were transported to the sawmill by truck. Nowadays there is no production of wood, but logs are turned into charcoal and illegally (against the orders of the elders as well) sold to Arabia. Some areas have been destroyed by fire. In the whole area there is at present only one (!) carpenter active.

The natural regeneration seems to be good - but there are different opinions - and still there are several proposals on Frankincense and Juniper nurseries claiming a lack of natural regeneration.

The regeneration of Boswellia seems to be a problem , only vegetative propagation is possible. Those trees are owned privately, highly estimated and well protected. It has to be checked if there is a real demand for seedlings.

Some Cypress trees have been imported by the British. If records of species trials are available has to be checked in Britain.

 

If either productivity and regeneration, or the amount of deadwood (used before) do allow sustainable harvest, the sawmill should be repaired to supply Somaliland (and the VTC) with wood. A nursery has been established in 1992. They would need some poliethen bags. At the time they use milk tins. Water is a problem as well. Mainly fruit trees are produced: grapes, peaches, mulberry ... Those seedlings need about 1.5 years in the nursery. The shade was a gift of ACTION AID.

Other NGOs and their activities: CARE (irrigation), COOPI (hospital), Vet.Aid., Health Unlimited (health posts), GTZ (agricultural development, fisheries, income  generation)).

 

The local population is very mixed (well, somali mix). Erigavo is the meeting point of three larger and one smaller (Las Gored) tribal faction (clan). Still, in 1993 a peace meeting has been held and since that they look to keep quiet and even inter‑clan marriages occur.

The Musa Ismail are the "woodcutter tribe" (unluckily not the treeplanter's).  As the forests are in the hands of the two Isaak clans, it would be prudent to establish a sawmill or any connected activity not in Erigavo itself but fully on the land of that tribe.

Normally the "distribution of favours" (projects) has to be done in a very sensitive way, consulting at any rate the elders. In case of arising troubles that are "not unfrequent" (COOPI has to evacuate every 3 to 6 month!) the way over land (10 hours to Berbera‑ Hargeisa) or sea (Hays/Mayt) would be safe. For wood transport anyhow the overland road has an other risky point at Bura'o, where troubles about camels are rather common.

3.2.2 Traditional management methods - the Reserve System

Two traditional management methods that are of some help for forest and range improvement are known, as:

 Drought Reserves: between the wells, at a good distance, areas are reserved for the dry season, that means they will not be used for 4 to 6 months.

- School Grazing Reserves: For the pupils that bring along a cow or camel for the milk!

 

Wells should not be spaced closer than 30 km apart, otherwise it will be difficult to have those reserves respected. The establishment and protection of reserves is arranged through the elders of the village and the village associations. The function and the importance of the elders and the local acceptance is not verbally expressed in the forestry law (s. Appendix A), but is fully recognised by the executive agency, the forest and range department.

Gedebile (what means the "sycomore tree" [Ficus sycomorus] is a forest reserve some 30 km north of Hargeisa. It got some WFP assistance. Now there are only 4 guards, unpaid. Before 1988 there were some 20. With the drought of 1996 the nomads moved in and cut down lots of branches and whole trees. Before that the fruits of the trees have been used by the village as fodder. The village would like to protect the forest ‑ "but the nomads have guns".

The cutting of branches for fodder purposes is done in a careless way. Lopping and pollarding are not properly established methods.

As the Gedebile forest, many dry reserves do not exist (or are not respected) anymore. Some other reserved areas of the Hargeisa area are at Qadow (Gedbalad, Aleibadei) and Salaan Yare. Those are two larger ones. Smaller ones are Dhan and Ceel Bardaleh.

The protection of the reserves should be reestablished. Some forest guards do this job already in the second generation (Abdu Awad at Gedebile e.g). Those reserves provide the rangeland with a rest from grazing for a certain period. Generally the best time to rest is during the rainy season - when regeneration sprouts and when the dry reserves are closed for livestock.

 

Forest by-products are here of not so much use an in other countries. Honey e.g, whose production has started, is valued at some 40,000 somali shillings the kg (hearsay), in the market it was found for 7000 / kg.

Frankincense has precisely the same price per kg - that means it is economically not very promising and will most probably not be of much help in the protection of the forests.

3.3 Charcoal use, production, substitution and saving

Wood cutting for charcoal is especially a problem in the North- West. A survey, made in 1994 by OXFAM America, is presented at the workshop by  Muh. Haji of SORRA. At Boroma area the types of stoves were checked at 800 households. The main type is from metal, but often 3 stones are used, especially for the use of firewood.

At the average 4 kg per day and household are used, what makes 17000 tons/y for the 12000 households, with costs of 84000 Somali Shillings. Additional 131 teashops (31 have been checked) use at an average 8kg per day, totally 310 tons per year. The bakeries (10) use 2 camel loads of logs per day, the load à 15‑20 kg, 10‑15,000 Ssh. The average transport distance is 34 km. Some charcoal is exported to Jibuti.

The total use at Boroma is some 18000 tons per year = 150000 trees. The distance at which to collect/find fuelwood is  already some 3‑5 km!

 

As an example for charcoal production the situation observed at Daweli, Gerevis is presented here. In this area (village would be an euphemism, its a few broken houses along the road), some 700 people live. The area has a radius of some 10 km (comp. chapter 2.4.1). For the production of charcoal that is locally only of secondary importance, a cooperative with 23 local members has been formed: LOLEIS.

For charcoal production the largest trees are burned at the bottom to ease felling. This procedure is probably being mistaken as a charcoal production method: the burning of standing trees. The logs are cut, stockpiled, covered with corrugated iron sheets, lit and later on covered with grass and mud. The burning process takes some 5 days, the cooling process again 5 days. There are surely ways to improve charcoal production by improved kilns and to save wood.

 

For the transport a lorry is rented from the city. 1 load equaling 6 tons, creates a net-income of 10,000 Somali Shillings. 3 lorries are filled per month (18 tons, = 30,000 ssh). On the retail market, sold in 20‑25kg bags at 1500ssh, that lot (6 tons = 240 bags) will amount to 360,000 ssh. The major amount goes to the big merchants and the retailers.

No special selection is taken on species. Small branches are left, some of them are used for cooking in the village.

Fuelwood and charcoal is the business of the forestry department. They should monitor the tree use and the harvesting.

A rotational system for wood harvestt, replantation (nursery needed) and charcoal production has to be developed with the participation of the ministry and the charcoal associations. Registered are actually LOLEIS, IFTIN and ILEYS. Charcoal production areas should be set up in blocks and delimited. Producers should be obliged to use the woodlands carefully, sustainably, that means, to take care for the natural regeneration or for replantations! All this will need the acceptance and the commitment of the local elders. As pilot areas Paliegubedile and Damal, each some 15 to 25 km from Hargeisa, are proposed.

The price is not decisive, and it is not considered as too cheap by Somalis. Especially during the rainy season prices can raise from 1500 to 3600 Ssh a bag. So

 

    There should be a chance to reduce charcoal consumption by improving stoves.

 

Recommendations on the improvement of stoves and ovens:

- compare models and their efficiency

- check the local market on available materials and skills for local production

- produce a set of models

- test the models in the households (cooking process, handling, quality of food, acceptance ...

     - coordinate with other WID programmes

- start awareness raising and distribution campaign with the women in the markets.

 

The main recommendation on substitution of Moh. Sheikh Abdullahi is Kerosene, as there is no care for energy saving (cheap) and no acceptance for new stoves, especially the solar box (an experience that can be confirmed from trials made in Yemen). Dung is shameful to work with (says Awale). In Jibuti 99% of the population use kerosene, the average consumption is 22.5 l/month.

 

At the Ministry of Mineral and Water Resources, Muhammed Hassan Abdullahi (DG) and Omar Sudan (Dir, geologist) claim that studies on oil and gas reserves are kept back by the international organisations that have done it. Large parts of the existing documents have been lost. The size of the lignite deposits east of Berbera is estimated as 4 billion tons. It would be important to develop it, as the destruction of woodlands has been estimated as some 600ha/y in 1992. There are no ongoing or promising projects. UNDP, EC and WB did not respond on project proposals.

There are several individuals (Ing. A‑Rashid Derie Farah) and NGOs (MUSTAQBAL Voluntary Organisation, Togdher Region, Burao, Nuradin JJJ. Samatar) that are interested in the development of coal reserves at Berbera. But this kind of business, gas (at present from Jibouti, very expensive. Possibly from Ethiopia) or coal development, should really be done as business by a private organisation that can be motivated (ev. by a tender!) to invest. The use of gas, as well as of more developed solar energy (parabola, solar cells ...) needs hard currency.

3.4 Community-Participation / Funding

Community participation and cost-recovery are very critical subjects in Somaliland. The fact is clear: "Popular participation in development is an appealing and indeed necessary goal if development efforts are to be sustained." That there is a certain "lack" is felt by the Somalis themselves. It is expressed in the proverb: "Ceel na uma, cidina uma maqna: The well is neglected and empty, and there is no one working on our behalf." Even Prof. Lewis, a longstanding expert on and friend of the Somalis indicates the problem of kickstarting development in Somalia: "... despite massive injections of foreign assistance which, particularly after the terrible 1975 drought, earned Somalia the reputation of being an aid grave-yard."

 

Nothing is known (well, not much has been studied, at least by Swissgroup) on traditional levels of participation, as the project was started as emergency assistance with little development orientation. For the contact with the villages (elders) the project often relies on local NGOs as intermediaries. The following text can be taken as an example on approaches to be avoided (Scoones: "In Somalia pastoralists have a tradition of co‑operation in the management of rangelands. Successful co‑operation takes place where there are groups of users without wide differences in wealth or in economic objectives, where customary contract law (xeer) is well developed and where functioning customary kin and clan structures facilitate co-operation on a wide range of issues. Co‑operation is undermined where the government claims management sovereignty over the rangelands, where individual rich herders or merchants introduce different management objectives or where donor‑assisted projects undermine customary decision‑making and enforcement processes. The lessons drawn for a more successful rangeland development strategy include: strengthening the force of customary xeer contracts by putting them in written form and using them as a basis for formal laws, a closer and more symbiotic relationship in pastoral areas between customary authorities and locally elected officials and the bureaucracy and the alignment of development plans for range and water with customary common property resource boundaries and management rules."

 

The National Range Agency (p 26) had the following approach to funding: "The Range Fund referred to in the Act is intended to assist the NRA to obtain funds for carrying out conservation, management and development of the range resources. The funds may be received from government, foreign grants or levies and taxes imposed in Somalia. The act provides for levies to be imposed upon a) the construction and use of water storage facilities, b) the sale of fodder c) the illegal use of grazing reserves and d) the registration of cooperative ranches."

Other examples are e.g. fees for school education, fees for water, fees for medicaments, drugs ‑ as well veterinary (covering drugs only).

 

The idea of a revival of the self-help-schemes might be useful. (UNESCO report, p 94): "The various regional and district development programmes initiated at the local level are usually funded through self‑help mechanisms. This concept is based on Law No. 39 ratified in 1972, and updated through decree MG/1/4/,1422/86 issued by the Ministry of Interior in May 1986. Self‑help schemes must be proposed with a comprehensive plan of action and budget. Plans are considered by the district self-help committee. If approved, funds are collected on a voluntary basis from the community, and these are jointly managed by the self‑help scheme committee and the permanent committee of the Local People's Assembly. This scheme is utilized to give financial support to SHWs and TBAs in the WHO‑supported PHC project in the Lower Shabelle."

3.5 Formal and Non-Formal Education, Training and Extension.

Even with a literacy rate between 10 and 20 %, the Somalis, as any nomads are eager for news and knowledge. There is a Somali proverb: "One lives on food and news." Richard Burton the explorer, scientist, geographer, artist and linguist wrote in the nineteenth century of Somalia: "The country teems with poets, poetasters, poetics, poetaccios". One hundred years later, B.W. Andrzejewski and I.M. Lewis noted that "the Somali are a nation of bards".

 

This strong  tradition in oral knowledge exchange will have to be taken into account for any training and extension activities.

 

The longing for information has been felt at several of the visited villages. Most of them would be happy for any advice (on improved charcoal making, ranch management and improvement ...). Some extension/education might be useful at refuge camps as well.

 

The emphasis on non-formal and "verbal" education has been expressed in the UNESCO-report (Chapter 3, Education):

"In Somalia "learning" is an activity which occurs in a variety of milieus, among them the home, the family, the mosque, the farm, the factory, and the school. Learning situations can be classified as informal ..., non formal (e.g. Koranic school), clubs) and formal (government supported school systems). Somali society continues to rely predominantly on oral communication as the medium of instruction. For this reason, informal and semi formal contexts play a significant role in providing education to the community. These channels cannot be overlooked, particularly if improvements in health, nutrition and family well‑being are to be maintained."

Already that time (1988) priority has been given to primary education while the need for secondary and especially adult education has been seen as conntected: "However, he added, as the experiences of nations throughout the world have shown, no programme of education for children can succeed without concomitant support for the development of literacy in the adult community. To this end the Ministry of Education will also stress the importance of nonformal education and wherever there is a primary school, there too will be evening classes for adults. In addition, Family Life Centres will teach women home based activities to support the welfare of the home and family"."

 

It will be wise, to take the recommendation of Scoones and to go first for human capacity building, instead of capital investment.

 

The UNESCO report, quoting "Two studies on educational wastage in Middle Shabeelle (1985) and Waqooyi Galbeed and Awdal Regions (1986)" found five main fields of problems in education:

 

a) socio‑ecological factors: drought, poverty, the production cycle clashes with the school cycle:  during the peak agricultural season few children visit the school. They earn up to 100‑200 Ssh per day, what in 1988 was equal to half a monthly wage of a teacher!

 

b) socio‑cultural factors: parental lack of confidence in quality of school, preference for Koranic schools, female retention for traditional household reasons; its inadequate services cannot persuade parents to sacrifice the time children normally spend in occupational labour (s. up).

 

c) infrastuctural weakness: young, poorly paid teachers, poor school facilities, inaccessibility of schools. There is a crisis (already in 1988!) due to the government's inability to finance educational costs on a sustained basis due to the unavailability of fiscal resources. While a qualified, motivate, and well supported teacher is perhaps the single most important ingredient necessary for a sound educational process - teachers are 80% underqualified or undertrained. In the three northern regions there were 27 % qualified, 41 % national service, 32% Egyptians in 1988. 30% had a primary school background + 1 year training, 57 % two years training, 32 % of the teachers are female. The mean age is 20 years!

 

d) goal‑oriented factors:  The educational system is not believed strong enough to lead to employment or economic survival, that means, there is no guarantee of employment after the school. The same problem is mentioned in the report on the carpentry section of VTC: "The trainees of the VTC will have to engage in private activities, to establish their own workshops ‑ there are no jobs. So they should in fact be trained as private entrepreneurs, taught in economics, maintenance and management as well as in the technical fields."

 

e) mobility of the population 

3.6.1.1 The Situation in Formal education

At Hargeisa so far only primary and intermediate schools have been established. The first secondary schools (4 y) will open in august 1996 at Hargeisa, Gabileh and Boroma. In Somalia the formal educational system started (1988) with two years of kindergarten (optional), followed by a 4/4/4/4 structure for elementary, intermediate, secondary, and unversity respectively. Post‑secondary courses have been offered by other technical ministries: Health (2 years' nursing), Livestock 9 2 years' veterinary science), Range and Forestry (2 years). The average class size was 26.8, national teacher/pupil ratio 1:19 (1:14 Sool, 1:33 Northwest).

Those days assistance is got from UNICEF, UNESCO and SCF. The government pays the salaries of 1425 teachers (some 10,000 Ssh per month). Some teachers do "voluntary work, as out of  Gebileh and Boroma. (see chapter 3.6).

Recommendations :

 

‑ local support has to be encouraged

‑ textbooks have to be revised to reflect curriculae more responsive to the needs of the children and the community. [Precisely the same recommendation is the core of women's education (s. next chapter).

So far there is no teaching material available for environmental awareness raising or education. For this kind of training the Ministry of planning should be leading, as different Ministries, as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, education and interior are involved.

‑ method of improving the production and distribution of textbooks

‑ improve technical and vocational schools by

‑ revising and unifying curriculae of technical and vocational education

‑ upgrading teacher quality

‑ production and distribution of instructional materials;

‑ improving the quality and quantity of equipment.

3.5.3 Non Formal education

The Ministry of Awqaf (DG Muh. Ahmed Ali) exists since 2‑3 years. It has established pre‑school curriculae, including environment (trees and animals) and it cooperates with the Ministry of Education and emits radio programs.

 

After the UNESCO report couranic schools are the most stable form of local, non‑formal education. For this type of schools "the devout Muslim population showed a marked preference for training boys and girls through this mode of instruction. ... parents are the main source of income for over 93 percent of these teachers, and payments may be made in the form of money,

food and other services."

The students are mostly aged from 5 to 9 (72%), although some continue until the age of 14. Girls account for 27 percent of the total number enrolled. Teaching last for 4 years - 10 hours a day, and is based on "rote memorization" of the quran, fiqhi (man's social affairs), towhid (man's relation with god), hadith (the sayings of the prophet), arabic and mathematics. "Few students leave Koranic schools genuinely literate in Arabic or fully numerate."

So on one side there is a clear an outspoken preference for this type of school, and: "Lessons can be learned form the continuity of the Koranic school which shows that parents and communities will support an educational structure responsive to their felt needs. These community‑based institutions hold some potential for reaching nomadic students, as teachers are generally selected from the community and are willing to travel with them."

But the limits are clear as well.

 

The following question might be taken as the programme to be followed, trying to establish environmental education: "The measure in which this time‑honored practices, having a relatively fixed curriculum and organisation, can be opened to new subjects and methodologies is a question that deserves further exploration. ..."

3.5.4 Extension

The extension services are relatively strong in agriculture, but there are only limited activities in environment. Ever one of the 5 regions has an extension center, but not yet the districts. Trained and experienced professionals are (still) available, but no finances. Some extension is done through radio and television, weekly, on range and forests. The situation is serious, and that is explained to the population, 90% of which are living from livestock and range. The destruction of the range would be the destruction of the subsistence and of the nation.

But most of the villages have never been contacted by extensionists from NGOs or the government - while (s. introduction to the chapter) information and extension (and assistance!) would be welcome. The enormous area with scattered, small settlements makes extension difficult, especially what concerns transports. At Gebile e.g. 5 extensionists (trained agronomists) are working with 1 car that brings them each to a village in the morning and collects them in the afternoon. The main topics for extension are:

‑ soil conservation: contour bounds, prevention of gully and splash erosion by the plantation of trees ("galool", "sugsug"), some by natural regeneration or seeds collected on the spot.

‑ new farming techniques

‑ plant protection (insecticides are not locally available, they have to be bought at Hargeisa.

‑ production of "home made insecticides / biological

          protection

 

The National Range agency always gave a high priority to field-oriented extension: "Although it is essential to have a strong headquarters organisation the field workers are the key link between the policy, research and the pastoralists or farmers. A high standard of operation in the field is vital to the effectiveness of the range development plan."

 

Its approach was (quite close to the one used by the "Natural Forests Section" in Yemen!) as a valuable

Recommendation for Projects on Extension:

a) initiating dialogue with the pastoral community whilst collecting sociological data in the area

b) continuing the dialogue  by explaining the objectives of the range development plan

c) producing visual aids and educational material applicable to the range development plan and easily followed by the nomadic communities

d) conducting seminars and workshops in the regions specifically prepared for the conditions of those regions.

d) carrying out regular programmes with mobile cinemas using films, slides, film strips or even video tapes."

 

The foreign donor agency should take into account the recommendations of Scoones:

‑ Long time frames are needed for iterative planning with the involvement of pastoralists. Successful planning and intervention may take 15 years or more.

‑ Start small and build up, focusing on institutional capacity at a local level.

 

So far there is not even one agricultural and veterinary school open in Somaliland! Everything was in Mogadishu ‑ but some potential teachers are available. There is some potential to involve NGOs into extension (s. app. B). Even on the education of extensionist proposals have been submitted: Ahmed Jama Sa'eed, Nolosan NGO, Bora'o: Rehabilitation of Wadaaamagoy Rural Development Institute (WRDI) for the training in range, livestock, forestry and charcoal. But before extension is started, assisting private organisations, the  messages, ways and methods should be developed in strong cooperation with the MLFR! Monitoring and evaluation procedures have to be developed.

3.5.4.1 Extension Among Nomads

The problem to reach the disperse population is shared by other fields needing extension. The main areas being human and animal health. "Browsing" their experience we get a lot of valuable information for forestry extension. Planning for extension, forestry and environment should try to coordinate with those fields.

Nomads: "This group represents the greatest theoretical and practical challenge for access to vaccination service. In most nomadic families, however, part of all members are settled during the rains, when pasturage is abundant. Indeed, in the northwestern regions only 10 percent of the population is estimated to be exclusively nomadic, and a further 23 percent is only partially so, having a "base camp" from which treks are organised.  ... Vaccination sessions would best be held during

dry season, when watering points are few and mainly consist of

chartered deep wells. Unfortunately, many of these are very isolated and difficult to reach by road. Success in the face of

such constraints would require a motivated health team with the

desire, organisational ability and initiative to make it work and the full cooperation of a community which believes in the benefits of the service being offered.

Communication is key to successful immunization programme among nomads. While a number of nomadic families have access to a radio, the most effective channels of communication ‑ those which invite trust and belief ‑ are informal and interpersonal."

The recommendation, to do extension at  water points (and teashops and the like) has been largely and successfully used in Yemen as well.

For the training of the extensionists we will encounter the same problems as listed above for the teachers (point a) to e)). The educational background, the training of trainers, will be poor. "Courses will have to emphasise practical training, field work, and role playing in favour of normal lectures."  There are still people available, trained and experienced, but due to the long period of professional inactivity during the civil war, they will need refresher courses (2 months, ev. WFP assisted. s. proposals of MLFR in App A.). Participants out of the strata of ex‑soldiers should be selected carefully, taking into account their psychological fitness ‑ and their origin (ideally from the place of work!). Many turned nuts ("trigger happy") during the war and might wreck havoc if sent to villages.

The economy and so the sustainability of such a service is a problem. But extension is a service of the government to the communities. A similar service had been created for health (COOPI's "mobile doctors"), animal health (NAHA: nomadic animal health auxiliaries), Vet Aid and UNHCR. Here the services could be charged and the income was used to procure the drugs.

 

Recommendations: For rehabilitation, replantation, reseeding and soil stabilisation a mobile extension and rangeland rehabilitation brigade should be created.

 

In the same time creating jobs and saving the environment. Vet Aid is on mobile vets, forestry needs mobile rangers!

 

The idea of the mobile rangers is not new, it was handled in such a way. Field work was the dominant part (s. up). Work had to be certified by the elders signing the weekly reports.

 

The first thing to develop will be the extension message, then an action plan, a monitoring concept and evaluation criteria.

 

If range management literature in the Somali language has been prepared is doubtful. At any rate nothing could be found during the field work. There is some efforts needed in the creation of such material. Extension messages, strategies and material might be developed in cooperation with Caritas Jibouti and the awqaf.

 

A last valuable hint, given by Dr Awale concerns incentives. Incentives are important for the Somali society ‑ but it does, opposite to expectations! - not need to be money! The issuing of diplomas and similar rewards/recognitions proofed very successful. It enhances competition between groups. A Somali saying is:

 "If I did something good for you ‑

say it,

let the people know it."

That means that:

 

    Honour is (probably still) more important than money!

3.6 Women in environment

For this chapter again the main base is the UNESCO report on women and children in Somalia. In this field it is, due to the segregation of genders, impossible for males to get valuable information. So I was not able to do my own research. On the other side, what is being done by WID programmes is, unluckily, all very much top - down. Instead of doing first some basic research (PRA), of getting the local problems, priorities and ideas for solutions, ready-made projects are  brought in. The present approaches are more based on "propaganda and training" than on enquiries, assessments and participation!

The women are trained in producing handicraft as waste paper baskets (90% analphabetic population!), batik (has a high standard in Kenya, none at all in Somaliland), table-linen (Somalis, as Arabs, eat on the floor) ... and more of the kind. Its the same products in Yemen and Kenya, all over the place. Rather useless and so, with a very limited potential for income generation. (UNESCO expressed the same critique!).

It has to be admitted, that the women enjoy the courses, it is "a change" for them.

A similar problem are the solar cookers. A heavy propaganda is being undertaken - I myself have taken part in it for a year in Yemen. But in Yemen we tried the thing, ourselves and with the people. The only thing that really gets cooked is tomatoes! Rice, the staple food, never gets really cooked, and especially it is impossible to produce dry rice. The opinion of the women's expert was: "So the people have to adapt themselves." She means the people have to adapt to the cookers - not the cookers to the people's taste! [Bullshit - no further comments!].

 

In those nomadic and agricultural families the division of labour is gender‑related. Women have to take care for the children, their education, the household, fetching water and fuel, to work on the farm, sow, look after the livestock,  making household utensils, weaving the portable nomadic house (aqal), they preserve food  and may also sell milk, ghee (clarified butter), mats and ropes, charcoal, and wild fruits to supplement the family income.

Among urban women the "poor women often gain less benefit from the amenities of city life. They are disadvantaged in measure of access to health and educational services and are often forced to turn to petty trading and domestic work, which offers a precarious income." The income generated by women is important for many families: "26 percent of home‑based income‑earners were women, while in Waaberi District almost one‑third of households depended upon women's earnings. The largest number of working women were in the age group 30‑34 years, with many widowed or divorced."

 

The problems in women's education after 1980 are the same as for the schools: "lack of operational funds, no guarantee of post‑ educational employment, shortage of educational material - and a poorly focused curriculum. Furthermore, the centres did not cater for rural women and concentrated skills training on nondevelopmental activities (s. up).

Here, as for forestry extension, we can largely rely on local knowledge and on locally developped programmes. Development work in Somalia is definitely not as difficult and cumbersome as one might think, relying on hearsay. There are an awful lot of god ideas and experiences available!

The approach of the ministry of education might be taken as recommendation for further development: The MOE "established in 1984 the Women's Education Department (WED) to provide educational opportunities for women who had little or no chance to attend formal schools. The main aim was to offer practical training which would improve their daily lives.  .. including raising the level of female literacy and prepare women for leadership roles; forming groups of women to stimulate rural development activities emphasizing women's participation; and transmitting relevant information to women involved in rural development. This function includes training, research, material development, and evaluation of development projects.

... It is apparent that making female education more meaningful

to life situations by including health, use of environmental resources, nutrition, and improve occupational skills would lead to greater support from the family and community for female education"

 

To get a better idea on the real needs of women in Somaliland and on their influence on the environment, to enable us to make some reasonable project proposals, including the women, some PRA would be needed as a first approach.

3.7 Research, Data, Documentation

To say that: "it is difficult to get data in Somaliland" would be almost euphemistic. Due to the different revolutions and unrest in Somalia lots of documents have been lost.

The major documentation center for Somaliland is now at

 

- UNDOS, Centenary House, Off Ring Road, Westlands, Nairobi. Tel. 254‑2 441.

 

The collection is by far not complete. Literature, mainly in the form of project reports, will have to be requested from:

- FAO

- British Admiralty

- GTZ

- IDA

- IFAD

- IGAD: Ahmed Junis Habane / Muh. Said Omar.

- ILCA (ADIS)

- Kuwait Fund

- Lorri, John: Anglo-Somali Society

- Oxfam, Rosalind David

- WFP

- World Bank

• The whole relevant information should be collected and made available at a local databank.

• Registration, monitoring and evaluation of NGOs should be started. At the time problems with the organisation of the government (plans and duties) are still prevalent.

• A database on local specialists (local experts) would be a valuable source for development.

For all this, the  Ministry of Planning should coordinate with the other interested ministries, the NGOs and the Environmental group.