2 Background: Environment, Social and Governmental Structures

Martin Herzog

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2 Background: Environment, Social and Governmental Structures

2.1 The Natural Environment

2.1.1 Climate

Rainfall [1])

The highest rainfall zones of Somaliland are along the northern escarpment, the Golis range. And that is the area where the forest remnants are found.

The coastal, inland and especially the eastern areas are much drier.

An additional problem to the generally semiarid climate is the seasonality:

jilal: dry season, december‑january, northeastern winds
qu: april‑may, heavy rains, later in the south.
xagaa: dry season.
deyr: intermittent rains during october in the north ‑ november Mogadishu, december in the south.

The most important rains fall during the qu, the driest, the longest and so, for men and livestock the most critical season is the jilal, during which people and livestock move to the southern range reserves, now in Ethiopia. It is this drought that lets the nomads move between coastal and inland areas, following the monsoon rains.

2.1.2 Flora, Woodlands, Forests; Zones and Tree Species.

The Somali Flora is, after Bally-Melville, related to the rest of Africa and Arabia, the eastern Mediterranean, the Canary Islands and Madagascar. The percentage (30%) of endemics is as high as for Socotra Island!

"Whilst more than 50% of the country is covered by wooded savanna composed of tree species (mainly Acacia) in varying densities, the true forest areas of Somalia constitute less than 4% of the land area and the actual exploitable timber in these forests is limited due mainly to the unreliable rainfall in most parts of the country. The forests of any reasonable magnitude are found either along the northern range of hills or to the south of the country." [2])

After UNESCO (the whole of) Somalia has 14% of woodlands, only one percent of that "mature" forests. Its xerophilos woodlands cover some 10-40 million ha. From southwest to north-east height and density is diminishing, while the floristic composition becomes richer. The rather dense, wooded bushland has an average height of 3.5m with scattered emergent trees up to 9m heigh. In the north-eastern regions with less than 200mm, there are some 17 million ha of semidesert grassland and shrubbland.

Area and volume estimates [3])

	area in km²	stock in m³/ha	total volume in million m³
forest	512	110	5.7
woodland	74,116	16	115.3
bushed woodland	19,400	20	38,2
wooded bushland	170,300	25	426,0
bushland	127,178	18	222,7
total tree cover	391,506		807,9

Zones and species:

The major forest areas are, due to the rainfall and the accessibility, on the Golis Range. This is the only area receiving up to and over 20 inches of rainfall.

The main tree species (alphabetically) are:

‑ Acacia arabica ("Marah") 3‑5000 ft

‑ Acacia bussei ("Galol") is probably the most important tree for the Somalis. From its roots, which extend to considerable distances just below the surface, are made the framework of movable houses. From its bark are woven camel mats (Kibit), water vessels and ropes. It is used in tanning is an excellent hardwood, and is employed as firewood and as well for charcoal. The young green, and ripened red bean fruit (Dimbil) is used to some extent as fodder and the leaves and young branches are browsed by lifestock. It grows at an altitude of 3000 to 5000 ft. Acacia bussei is growing in the zone of 900‑ 1200m, with 2‑300mm of rainfall. It is associated there with Boscia, Grewia, Cadaba, A. mellifera ...

‑ Acacia ethbaica ("Sugsug"), 4000‑7000 ft, 12 to 20 inches of rainfall. Acacia ethbaica grows in the zone between 1250 and 1500m, receiving 350 ‑ 550 mm. It is associated with Balanites aegyptiaca, Cadaba farinosa ... Due to charcoal production it is increasingly exploited between Hargeisa and Boroma.

‑ Acacia spirocarpa ("Qoda"). 1 subspecies. Grows 40 ft high! Around seasonal pools and intermittent river courses (Tugs).

‑ Albizzia anthelmintica ("Redap"). Abundant in the Haud.

‑ Balanites orbicularis ("Kulan"). Lowland, Golf of Aden. Fruit edible.

‑ Boswellia spp ("Mohor"), B. freereana ("Maidi"). Growing on cliffs of limestone.

‑ Buxus hildebrantii ("Dosok")

- Conocarpus lancifolius ("Damas"): This wood is excellent for Dow building and has been exported to Arabia before. It is used as well for charcoal.

‑ Cordiauxia edulis ("Ye'eb") 2000 ft. Eastern Ethiopia. A very useful nut (s. FAO projects!).

‑ Delonix elata ("Lebi") < 2500ft

‑ Hyphaena thebaica ("Au"): In permanent water. Used for mat making.

‑ Juniperus procera ("Daib"), growing up to 70 ft tall, is used for timber, some cut as "christmas trees" and burned "to frighten lions". In spite of the information that it is not used as charcoal because of its smell, nowadays sometimes it is mis-used for charcoal (export to Yemen and Saudi). Some parts in this area (Erigavo, NE) are being cleared for gardens and farms as in the NW, between Hargeisa and Boroma. It is the main species of the Northern Escarpment, in the zone above the A. ethbaica zone, higher than 1650m, receiving 5‑600mm of rainfall. It associates with Buxus hildebrandtii, Dodonea viscosa, Terminalia brownii (the most valuable community/farm forestry tree in Yemen!), ...

- Phoenix reclinata ("Maido"): In permanent water. Used for mat making.

‑ Ziziphus mauritiana ("Gob"). Stream banks

Wagar Mountains above Sheikh in the Golis Range

The Wagar mountain forest is a dense shrubland with Buxus hildebrantii and Juniperus excelsa (as Jebel Lawz in Yemen, Jibouti, ...) The junipers seen reached maximum 35 to 40 cm in diameter and a height of 10m. In this part of the forest no regeneration could be seen. The nomads told us later on that the forest is much denser eastwards and that it regenerates naturally. An other forest of this type is nearer to Hargeisa near Gebileh, but it is mined! Boswellia can be found from the next hill eastwards on, down to Erigawo.

Golis, Daloo Forest, above Erigavo

This is the main area for Junipers, growing on 7000 ft altitude, reaching a height of 80 ft (!) and for the famous frankincense trees. Those seem still to be owned privately, as Plini! reported already for South Arabia. The theft or destruction of a tree is punished by 1 camel!

2.1.3 List of the Nature Reserves in Northern Somalia [4]):

Wildlife has practically been destroyed by drought and carelessness. Activities would be urgent (wild ass ...) but difficult and in many cases too late (Elephant, Rino, Lion... / s. introduction). The protection of the following reserves would have to be included in a project concerning natural forests protection and management:

‑ Ga'an: Berbera‑Hargeisa. Juniperus, Libah,

‑ Surud: Erigawo. Juniperus

‑ Las Anod; 6‑12 km south of Las Anod (towards Baran).

‑ Geldora Pass, Al Mado range. Las Kioran ‑ Buran

‑ Molidera hill reserve, 60 km SW of Erigavo on the road to El Dab (Dracaena ombet)

‑ South Carin: 6‑11 km, 60 km from Busaso

‑ Bihen Dulla reserve, Berbera

‑ Baran district, 18 km S of Las Anod, 12 km NE of Baran: Commiphora, Acacia

‑ Hadaftimo, Erigavo

‑ Sheikh pass, Waggar range

2.2 The Social Environment: Clans and Nomadism

2.2.1 History and Population Data

Somalia, and with it Somaliland, are creations of the colonial powers. British Somaliland received its independence on June 26, 1960 and merged with the Trust Territory to form the independent Republic of Somalia on July 1, 1960. The new government had to reconcile two administrations having different political, legal and fiscal systems, and it failed.

The country (176,000 km²) is divided into 5 regions: Awdal (Boroma), Waqooyi Galbeed (Hargeisa), Togdeer (Burao), Sool (Las Anod) and Sanag (Erigavo).

The population of Somaliland is estimated as 1.8 to 3.1 million. The capital Hargeisa had some 350,000 inhabitants before the war, some 150,000 after 1991. The population grows at a rate of 3%. The age at marriage for women is in the average 18-19 years in rural, 21 in urban areas, for men 25 ‑ 30. The fertility rate is 8.2 within the nomadic population, 6.3 for the rural areas. Infant mortality is 152/1000. The medical services are anyhow precarious, there is only 1 doctor available for 30000 patients! The literacy rate in 1987 was 19% (!) for males and 6% for females.

The family law of 1975, on the legal side, guaranteed basic equality between women and men, granted women the right to hold political office, equal right to inheritance, and legal land right with access to credit and training. The new laws are under process, at the time being the constitution is still under discussion.

In 1986 44% of the population were nomadic, 31% settled rural, 24% settled urban. The 44% nomads generate 80% of the foreign currency revenues, through livestock export! And this in spite of the very poor lifestyle of the nomads. A sheep values some 15$, a fat cow 100 $! Livestock, bananas, hides and skins, incense and myrrh ‑ produce over twice as much income as is expended on agricultural imports. Still, the total imports exceed exports by about four to one!

2.2.2 Nomads and the "Local Leadership Stile"

There is a recent tendency towards "semi‑permanent" settlements around berkeds south and west of Hargeisa. The semi‑nomadic population has a farm where some cows and the milk‑lambs are kept ‑ while the herds are moving during the dry season towards the Houd, the drought reserves in Ethiopia.

Those villages are generally self‑sufficient - and largely self‑ruled. Some "authority", based on respect and the "power of persuasion" - but not authority of command! - is vested in the elders. "Social organisation among nomadic men is strikingly egalitarian and democratic. Leaders are chosen for their intelligence, management skills, and their command of poetry and oratory. The nomadic lifestyle is characterised by great individuality and independence; for, in this difficult environment people must respond first to the commands of nature and second to those of men or women." [5])

External assistance and development has to take into account those traditions and to proceed through those existing structures that are still very much related to the nomadic ones: "Overall, the social organisation of these northern cultivating families remains similar to that of purely nomadic pastoral groups. Among riverine populations, village settlements have developed a more complex political and social organisation, and tends to a territorial arrangement under community leaders or headmen. Along with government representatives, the headmen undertake responsibility for maintaining justice, order, and political administration. A more hierarchical order with clearer class distinctions typifies these groups." [6]) The nomads do not respect a law ‑ except their own. Due to the risky and unreliable environment, large parts of the population will always have to rely on "low input ‑ low output systems". The Common wisdom on farming is:

"It is said that one cannot pierce the sky to get rain for one's garden, nor can one drive the farm as one drives animals to the place where rain is falling. Worst of all one cannot abandon one's farm even though barren, because one's efforts are invested in it." [7])

This nomadic lifestyle is not only a problem for the adminstration, but as well for education and extension. Those problems are common to the fields of human and animal health, agriculture and forestry. The nomads do not have schools and formal education‑ but they are very much interested in any knowledge - as much as the villages.

The nomadic lifestyle and traditions pose an other problem, he one of land ownership and free access to range. Somaliland is an enormous country ‑ with a small, scattered population. The effects on the range is everywhere visible, so at different levels of impact. Any activity in this field has to cover large areas and has to deal with uncountable small settlements. Virtually no land is owned by the government or by the waqf, privates or cooperatives. All rangelands are considered common. The nomads won't accept any restrictions of their free movement. Exclosures are damaging for the range.

The traditional idea of drought reserves or the like would have to be expanded.

The demarcation of agricultural, range and forest areas (reserves) would be required. Land use planning and mapping was in fact a priority of the NRA and is still one for the Ministry of Livestock, Forest and Range (MLFR). But there are certain problems with the "feasibility". On one side the need is clearly understood from the point of view of planners and managers. The public opinion is even in favour of such measures: "The people would listen to that and respect it ‑ it was done in such an orderly way in the past (British time)‑ at present the people are abusing." On the other side, application would have to be secured on the local level through and by villages. But in addition governmental assistance would need, as well as some heavy extension work with the nomads.

2.2.3 Clans

The Somalis are, as the Yemeni tribesmen, very independent minded, "freedom worshipping" people. They do only aggregate into larger institutions (village, tribe, clan, nation ...) in case of need. Here again an important principle that is constantly breached by international agencies:

Ø Projects have to rely on the most stable social group available in the area - and neither in Yemen nor in Somaliland that is the government.

As I.M.Lewis claims: "The two most stable elements in Somali society are: 1) the 'dia paying group': the contractually defined kinship group within clans or subclans, which acts as a unit in paying and receiving damages for injury and death; and 2) the clan: a grouping of several related 'dia paying groups'" [8])

Unluckily the clans are many. The six Somali clan-families are the Dir, Darod, Isaq, Hawiye, Digil and Rahanweyn (Digil-Mirifle).

The following map (from EC/UNDP) gives an impression of the complexity: Clan-settings in the northern part of the Horn of Africa:

2.3 Economy

Agriculture employs three quarters of the population and contributes two thirds to the GDP:

In the northern areas (Somaliland), the 13% of arable surface are situated in a few areas only, receiving more than 500mm of rainfall, that means Hargeisa‑Boroma and Erigavo.

From 1969 to 1991 Somalia was ruled by the "Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC)", led by the President Major General Mohammed Siad Barre. This body served until 1976 as the supreme legislation and executive body. The little economic activities have been disrupted by the Ogaden war 1977/78 and the reliance on foreign aid was definitely not improving the economic performance. Privates, companies and associations can lease land for certain time spans, up to 99 years. Land tenure under those historical and traditional (nomads, s. previous chapter) settings is a problem. Officially the state still claims ownership of range and forests. As long as the constitution is still under discussion and as Somaliland is anyhow not politically recognised, it does not make much sense to discuss the issue.

At any rate, it has been said about Somalia, that "the government is poor and (some) privates are rich". As I.M. Lewis [9]) expresses it: "Only the pastoral livestock industry managed to survive the destructive economic effects of the Siad Barre regime, which officially suppressed private enterprise, although thereby stimulating an extensive informal and black market economy. In the late 1980s, a structural adjustment programme was attempted but not properly implemented, leaving Somalis with little experience of successful economic policy. Once the state collapsed, the country was left with many small traders and producers lacking public services and regulation." "Monopolies were used to maximise personal gains, and resources were allocated on the basis of personal and clan ties." [10])

The fact that some 300,000 Somali workers abroad increased the GNP from 273 to 370$ is the base for an other problem Somalia has in common with Yemen: the extremely high labour costs.

2.3.1 Livestock Markets, Holding Grounds.

The last line shows, that the estimates are not quite reliable. Somaliland's surface is only 40% of Somalia! Probably the total livestock of Somaliland is underestimated with 11 million (Sool region is missing in this table!). More recent estimates are 20-25 million. It would be astonishing that Somaliland has only for sheep a proportionally higher quote than the rest of Somalia - while being the center of pastoralism.

The map from Aves/Bechtold (abb. 3, p. 38)shows that the major livestock producer and the dominant livestock exporter is Somaliland.

An other problem where no information is available is the shape of the grazing reserves in Ethiopia. They might be heavily overused or even largely destroyed!?.

Scoones reports (p 87) that "despite becoming a major exporter of live animals to Gulf countries during the 1960s and 1970s, Somalia was never able to establish a functional, cost‑effective and well‑managed set of export marketing facilities. Holding grounds were invariably poorly designed, constructed and maintained. Forage production was typically inadequate and water sources were not always reliable. Furthermore, livestock traders never accepted that they had to put their animals in holding grounds for quarantine. Some traders feared mixing their healthy stock with other traders' diseased stock; others preferred simply to graze and water their export herds on the open range. In addition, temporary holding facilities are usually required near ports. At Berbera in northern Somalia, the port, through which the largest numbers of export passed, the temporary veterinary holding facility was never large enough or well enough managed to accommodate trade herds, particularly during the pre‑hadj period of maximum export volumes. A major logistical problem is moving herds from distant holding grounds to temporary holding facilities at ports." This led to substantial losses and to the need for reconditioning in Saudi.

Large livestock markets are at Tog Wajale and Alleybadey (north of Gebile). After the war the bulk of the animal trade moved to Hartisheikh. A major problem is the fodder, this area here is producing and exporting such. The export from Ethiopia is forbidden. For 12 tons of hay some 250‑300'000 Ssh are payed. Before there were holding grounds at Darborough and Lafarroug. It really seems to be one of the most urgent problems to rehabilitate such fodder producing and holding grounds.

2.3.2 Agricultural Production

Somaliland is able to produce maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, cowpea, sunflower, peanut and all subtropical fruits, as oranges, mandarins, pomegrenade, guava, papaya and mango. An important cash crop is qat/chat (Catha edulis). The main agricultural areas are in the north-western area of Hargeisa-Boroma. At Gedebile e.g. are the gardens and fruit orchards of Hargeisa, often belong to rich landlords (or land-ladies) living in the capital. The main products are fruits: Mango, Papaya, Guava, Oranges, Dates; and Vegetables: Carrots, Tomatoes, Onions.

An other farming model are the large army or ex-soldiers farms as e.g. Booc between Sheikh and Borao. This is a 200 ha farm with 22 people, mainly ex‑soldiers (60 before), growing cattle, sheep and goats, sorghum, cowpeas, mugpeas, water‑melons (that are exported to Jibouti and Aden), tomatoes and fodder crops. The animals with their guards are kept at the corners of the plot to guard the area from the intrusion of nomads.

There would be a chance for a cattle fattening project, but the major problem is fodder supplies (no molasses or the like as in the southern part of Somali or in Ethiopia!)

Fisheries is an other field with an extremely high potential for increased production. So far only some 10% of the sustainable harvest are caught! The fishstocks are still very healthy, there is only little pollution around the port of Berbera.

Per month some 4 tons are caught for local consumption. Every Monday 1 ton is sent to Abu Dabi and since shortly to Ethiopia and Jibouti. Almost no fish is available at Hargeisa.

Licenses are given to the Arabs (UAE) and Russians. The waters are controlled by gunboats!

2.3.3 Wood Imports and Charcoal Exports

The data are admittedly meagre. It looks that the total amount of foreign currency spent on (officially registered!) wood import is not much more than 1 million US$ per year. Some more might come by counterband.

Data on charcoal export are totally lacking as charcoal export is forbidden. No export seems to be done through the port of Berbera, but rather, from hearsay, through Maydh and Heis.

2.4 Governmental Structures

2.4.1 Governing Tribes: An optimisation between centralism and indvidualism [1])- the squaring of the circle

Somalia, in spite of its past dictatorial leadership, has no tradition of centralised government and powerful leaders. The present governmental structures, as well as the division of the population into five parts (french‑Jibuti, British-Somaliland, Ethiopian-Ogaden, Italian-Southern Somalia and Kenya), are mainly a result of the European colonialisation. Somali pastoralists are individualists, discussing common matters in a "general assembly" (shir) on an equal base. Decisions are taken on the base of consensus - not as majority decisions and not as decisions of an elite. Even the elders do not have any power of command! They have authority - if they are able to convince - but their main function is to make consensus possible. Any member of the community has to have the right to participate in the decision making process. For Somalia (inclusive Somaliland) this means that each clan has to participate in project development!

I.M. Lewis proposes a consensus, not a majority oriented political model for Somaliland's government. His approach is close to (and based on) the Swiss model. The central power should be kept small. Only the functions that really need to be centralised, where coherence, consistency and continuity are unalienable should be allotted to it. Those are:

- "Common pastures, water supplies and fish stocks need to be protected from degradation, ..." [18])

- Even in the case of law, the need for centralisation is not absolute. Somalia has a longstanding experience with "Multiple Systems of Law" [19]): "The existence of multiple systems of law within a state does not complicate administration and implementation. Somalis, however, in common with people in many other African states, already have some considerable experience in multiple legal systems since customary law and Islamic law have co-existed alongside the received English and Italian law."

The administration of Somaliland has to deal with a disperse population. For that it needs widely spread offices. On the rural level we have districts, subdistricts (beel) and even sub‑sub‑districts (tuulo), the smallest unit of governmental administration with a council. It covers in the average some 10 km² and is the critical link to the government. In metropolitan areas the corresponding structures are the "laan" (or "beel"), the "waax" and the "tabella" - the smallest unit with 50 to 100 households.

The maximum of possible functions should be handled in a decentralised way. This approach is hampered by the assumption of international agencies and bilateral foreign donors that those services would have to originate from the center. The case of Somaliland, still politically not recognised, substantiates this fact. World Bank, IMF and several UN agencies have "political-administrative" difficulties to work there.

The contact between central ministries and the rural areas are the regional coordinators, making up the Regional Development Council. They are guided by policies and technical instructions from the respective ministry. In their day to day activities they depend on the governor.

Financing of such institutions is still precarious. Where NGOs fulfill such functions (mainly in the south) they operate on payment-for-service base.

2.4.2 Governmental Institutions Concerning the Environment

The environmental section at the Ministry of Agriculture (DG Eng. Alie Abdi Odawa), is only developing. There are 4‑5 persons employed, but no specialists, no resources, no activities.

What is of quite some interest is the agricultural extension. More cooperation with livestock and forestry might be an advantage. At Gebile e.g. the agricultural extension service gives advice on soil stabilisation and watershed management!

The priorities for Mayor Muhammed Hashi Elmi of Hargeisa municipality are actually more "market oriented". A total of some 999 small shops should be established until the end of the year. The needed licenses and fees will help the town administration and can be more easily collected.

For road construction and repair the surveying equipment, maps and plans and the building material will be needed, as well as office equipment, aerial photos (under process in Kenia). For this reason, the lack of planning, activities in town-environment and town-forestry are a bit too early!

2 hospitals do exist, 1 for TB, 1 general. So far only primary schools and coranic pre‑schools are functioning, no secondary schools or adult education.

In the field of energy, the responsibility for charcoal is with the Ministry of Range and Forests. Electrification might be left to private initiative. Hargeisa has surely a potential as "economic motor" for its hinterland [20]) - but the hinterland will have to take care for the sustainability of its resources! Nothing of the large ecological program of UNCHS has been executed so far, especially not for the villages around Hargeisa.

The mayor says that seedlings should be provided for shops and roadside plantations. Spaces will be spared for green areas in the land reform law. this might and should be done in cooperation with the two already existing nurseries. (s. 2.4.2.3)

2.4.2.1 Forestry

Forestry exists since 1952, when 1 forestry officer was appointed by the British. After the 1991 revolution all laws dating from the S. Barre time (1969‑1991 have been abolished. Laws from before can be considered as valuable, as e.g. the "Law on Fauna, Hunting and Forest Conservation" (s. Appendix A). Management plans existed, but nothing is left. Some information might probably be found with Mr. John J. Lorri who was the director of natural reserves, now working as consultant in England and being a member of the Anglo‑Somali Society.

The actual structure of the Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range looks as follows:

- Director General: Muhammed Abdullahi Ali, who has the following motto at his office:

The directorate is subdivided into 4 major departments and 9 subdepartmens: Administration + personnel and stores / Animal Health + Production / Forestry + Range (Abdul Hakim) / Planning + Research. Totally there are 26 employees (+ the regional coordinators).

2.4.2.2 Priorities, Plans and Strategies

In 1980 the National Range Authority [NRA] formulated the following objectives for the 10 year plan [21]):

"Range survey and monitoring: potential land use map / meteorological stations / water sources map / fodder supplies / establishment of fixed monitoring sites / assessment of forest areas with potential use/evaluation of indigenous plants / of different ecological zones (carrying capacity) / grazing systems / exotic species / rehabilitation - reseeding combined with water conservation / conservation of fodder / bush control methods / economy of range development

The present priorities, mainly of the MLFR, are here not ranked, as rankings differ from place to place, agency to agency, NGO to NGO and person to person. [An extensive list is to be found in Appendix A]:

- Rehabilitation of ex‑refugee camps and surroundings: The situation has to be assessed, replantation should be done with natural species. The Eucalypts (e.g. at Gedebile) should be replaced by Tamarindus (fruits!), Acacia cataba and Ziziphus maurit.

- Windbreaks and shelterbelts (e.g. at Berbera) with Conocarpus and Balanites.

Appendix: Species - seeds, trials, preferences

Eucalyptus is not liked, as it uses too much water and is too competitive. At La Faroug an Eucalyptus plantation (with some Conocarpus) has been established in 1955 along the tug (wadi / seasonal water course). The plantation is some 6 km ong, 0 ‑ 50 m large (º 15 ha). Many of the Eucalypts are inclined or toppled‑ most probably due to the strong winds. At Gedebile as well Eucalypts have been planted before 20 years along the river, but they are at present being cut down, as "nothing grows under them". Their heavy impact on the water table is being criticised. The farmers would be willing and interested to plant other tree species to protect the bounds, but so far no seedlings are available.

- Pinus radiata and halepensis have been tried. Due to the lack of mycorrhyza they are very slow growing.

‑ Prosopis is already a pest (s. Djibouti) ‑ might be harvested for charcoal. After Basha Atilahi Yassin, e.g., the only Prosopis of some use in SL is P. cineraria (s. South‑Yemen). Seeds can be procured through ICRAF.

‑ In the coastal plains Conocarpus and Parkinsonia do quite well. Parkinsonia being quite agressive and for that not very much estimated!

Appendix: NURSERIES:

At present the forestry department has very limited activities. Before it was running some 18 nurseries and 47 range reserves have been functioning. Since 1995 only the nurseries at Hargeisa, Boroma, Gebile and Berbera are functional.

The Hargeisa nursery is in a big park in the center of the town. Assisted by the World Food Programme it produces some 12,000 seedlings per year of Schinus, Parkinsonia, Papaya and Prosopis, using pots of 8 x 18 cm. 25 workers are receiving food ratios (- present have been two persons only). The seedlings are given for free!

During the heavy rains in may 1996 the nursery has been ruined and needs rehabilitation.

A second nursery is private, belonging to the MP and environmentalist Dr. Musa Awale. It is situated in the garden of the state guest house ‑ a beautiful place. The size is some 10 x 35 m. The pot-size used 15 x 24 cm. Seedlings are irrigated daily - about 15 % are dead. The estimated total number is 3200 seedlings. The gardener claims 3000 trees + 3000 "small plants". Mango, pomegrenade, shinus, mango and ornamentals are produced. The fruit trees need 2 to 3 years! There is no need for a shading net, as there are old trees.

Gebile: The directorate (regional representation of the Ministry of Livestock, Forest and Range) is running a small nursery (in a big park) behind the building. 20 people produce some 6‑8000 seedlings/y: Schinus, Tamarindus, Ziziphus and Eucalyptus. Bags are bought at Jibouti.

A problem is the salty water, leading to the killing of many seedlings. A birka would be needed. The seedlings are used for plantations at the village (truly - a very green, tree liking village!).

The replantation of areas damaged (= cleared) during the war, by bulldozers, would be needed, as well as of areas cleared for charcoal production.

At Boroma the situation is less attractive. An old nursery, established by SORRA in 1993 has been abandoned ‑ the 6 month contract being terminated (sustainability = contract duration!?). The seedlings are still there, the roots are growing through the bottom of the pots.

As well the very old British nursery has been abandoned. It has a dam, used or the experimental agricultural farm. There are old Eucalypts, Flame Trees, Schinus, Oleander ... It might be developed into a park, including a new nursery - under shade-trees.

At Agamsa exists a nursery, assisted by IRC, producing some 3000 seedlings/y with 10 persons: Eucalyptus, Tamarindus, Ziziphus maur. ("Gob"). The production of lemon and guava is planned, as well as the establishment of windshelters. This nursery was established after the forestry nursery at Gebile (WFP) - what indicates a certain "tribalisme" (lack of cooßperation) between the different agencies.

At Daarburug Khadar Muh. Ali is running a private nursery, mainly for fruit trees (papaya, melon, pomegrenade). The whole town is planted with Schinus. 1986 some CARE assistance was given (seeds and pots). The nursery has been partly destroyed during the war.

At Lafaroug Ahmed Shamoa, the chairman, shows us the nursery under the tree shade. They are helped by the WFP - but would need pots! This nursery is producing Conocarpus ("Damas") seedlings for Berbera. They claim that there is a large market for those seedlings ‑ that are distributed for free.

At Berbera the Ministry of Livestock and Range has an other nursery, some 10 x 20 m. The species grown here are: Ziziphus mauritanica, Parkinsonia, Ac. albida, Tamarindus indica, Conocarpus lancifolius and Grevillea. Some 2800 seedlings are here. The nursery is working since half a year and is assisted with 20 ffw ratios (ridiculous productivity!). There are no funds for the protection of the plants and there are no sites.

At Booc (between Sheikh and Bora'o) a birka has been built and a small nursery (7 x 7 m), where Tamarindus indica, Ziziphus mauritanica, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordia somalensis & sinensis and Azadirachta indica are being produced. Hedges from sisal have been planted. The nursery should produce for Sheikh, Berbera and Bura'o. It was assisted by WFP - but lacks bags and fencing material for protection.

[2]) National Range Authority. p 29: "6. Department of Forestry / 6.1 Background

[3]) FAO, table 1: growing stock (all Somalia), p 24:

[4]) Hunt Report on British Somalia: Appendix 1‑4, p 17‑25

[11]) s. as well report on VTC, carpentry.

[12]) National Range Agency: p 3: chapter 1.2.2:

[15]) Ministry of Finance, Customs department, Muhammed Duali, Dir. of Customs.

[20]) Shaun McCarthy, HABITAT (UNHCS). priv. com.

[21]) National Range Agency. Dev. Plan 1980. p 17:

Region	Human pop.	camels	cattle	sheep	goats
NW-region	440	606	145	2242	3076
Togdeer	268	320	44	917	907
Sanaag	145	205	74	1521	664
Sool
Total	853	1131	263	4680	4647
Somaliland in % of total Somalia	22	21	7	50	30

2 Background: Environment, Social and Governmental Structures

2.1 The Natural Environment

2.1.1 Climate

Rainfall [1])

2.1.2 Flora, Woodlands, Forests; Zones and Tree Species.

Wagar Mountains above Sheikh in the Golis Range

Golis, Daloo Forest, above Erigavo

2.1.3 List of the Nature Reserves in Northern Somalia [4]):

2.2 The Social Environment: Clans and Nomadism

2.2.1 History and Population Data

2.2.2 Nomads and the "Local Leadership Stile"

2.2.3 Clans

2.3 Economy

2.3.1 Livestock Markets, Holding Grounds.

2.3.2 Agricultural Production

2.3.3 Wood Imports and Charcoal Exports

2.4 Governmental Structures

2.4.1 Governing Tribes: An optimisation between centralism and indvidualism [1])- the squaring of the circle

2.4.2 Governmental Institutions Concerning the Environment

2.4.2.1 Forestry

2.4.2.2 Priorities, Plans and Strategies

Appendix: Species - seeds, trials, preferences

Appendix: NURSERIES: